Başkasının Üzüntüsüne Sevinme Ölçeği’nin Türkçeye Uyarlanması

Öz

Crysel (2014), sosyal yaşamda çeşitli talihsiz olaylar karşısında başkasının üzüntüsüne sevinme duygusunun bir kişilik özelliği olarak ele alınabileceğini ileri sürmüştür. Bu doğrultuda, iyicil ve kötücül başkasının üzüntüsüne sevinme olmak üzere iki faktöre sahip ve toplam 12 maddeden oluşan bir ölçek geliştirmiştir. Bu çalışmanın amacı Crysel (2014) tarafından Amerikan örnekleminde geliştirilen Başkasının Üzüntüsüne Sevinme Ölçeği’ni Türkçeye uyarlamak ve psikometrik özelliklerini incelemektir. Bu çalışmanın örneklemini 379 üniversite öğrencisi (183 erkek, 196 kadın, Ort.yaş = 20.6, SS = 2.48) oluşturmaktadır. Başkasının Üzüntüsüne Sevinme Ölçeği’ne ek olarak katılımcılara geçerlik sınamaları kapsamında Toronto Empati Ölçeği ve BeMaS- Haset ve Gıpta Ölçeği de verilmiştir. Psikometrik sınamalar kapsamında madde analizi, doğrulayıcı faktör analizi, diğer yapılarla ilişkiler ve güvenirlik için tutarlık analizi uygulanmıştır. Madde analizi, ölçek maddelerinin madde toplam korelasyon katsayılarının uygun değerlere sahip olduğunu göstermektedir (.27- .46). Doğrulayıcı faktör analizleri sonucunda toplam beş model sınanmış ve elde edilen bulgular ölçeğin Türkçe formunun yeterli uyum değerlerine sahip olduğunu ve orijinal ölçek ile benzer faktör yapısına sahip olduğunu göstermiştir. Beklenildiği şekilde, faktörlerin kendi aralarındaki ve ölçekle olan ilişkileri anlamlı olduğu gibi; başkasının üzüntüsüne sevinme ile empati arasında negatif yönlü, haset arasında ise pozitif yönlü bir ilişki vardır. Ayrıca, sonuçlar gıpta ile başkasının üzüntüsüne sevinme duygusu arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir ilişki olmadığını göstermiştir. Sonuç olarak, Başkasının Üzüntüsüne Sevinme Ölçeği’nin Türkçe formu iki faktörden ve 11 maddeden oluşmuştur. Yapılan analizler doğrultusunda ilgili ölçeğin geçerli ve güvenilir bir ölçme aracı olabileceğine ilişkin çeşitli kanıtlar elde edilmiştir. Dolayısıyla, bu ölçek kişiler arası süreçleri, duyguları, benliği ve kişilik özelliklerini inceleyecek gelecek araştırmalarda başkasının üzüntüsüne sevinme duygusunun düzeyini belirlemek için kolayca kullanılabilir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Başkasının üzüntüsüne sevinme
• geçerlik
• güvenirlik
• empati
• kıskançlık

The Adaptation of the Schadenfreude Scale into Turkish Culture

Öz

Crysel (2014) argued that Schadenfreude can be evaluated as a trait in the face of various unfortunate events in social life. Accordingly, she developed a 12-item scale that consists of two dimensions: benign and malicious Schadenfreude. The present study aims to adapt the Schadenfreude Scale Crysel developed for American culture to Turkish and to examine its psychometric properties. The study’s sample is comprised of 379 university students (183 male, 196 female, Mage = 20.6, SD = 2.48). The participants were given the Toronto Empathy Scale and Benign and Malicious Envy Scale to test the validity of the Schadenfreude Scale. Item analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and internal consistency were respectively performed on the data obtained from the sample. The item analysis demonstrated the item-total correlation values to be suitable (ranging from .27- .46). As a result of the confirmatory factor analysis, five models were generated, and the obtained findings show the Turkish form of the scale to have adequate fit indexes and a factor structure similar to the original scale. As expected, a positive correlation was found between Schadenfreude and malicious envy, whereas a negative correlation was found between Schadenfreude and empathy. Also, the results revealed no relationship to be present between benign envy and Schadenfreude. As a result, the Turkish form of the Schadenfreude Scale consists of two factors and 11 items. According to the analysis, a variety of evidence was obtained showing the scale to be a valid and reliable measuring tool. Hence, this scale can easily be used to determine the level of Schadenfreude in future research investigating interpersonal processes, emotions, the self, and traits.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Schadenfreude
• validity
• reliability
• empathy
• envy

Kaynakça

1. Aristoteles. (1954). The rhetoric and the poetics of Aristotle. (W. R. Roberts, Çev.). Modern Library. (Orijinal eserin basım tarihi MÖ 350). google scholar
2. Berndsen, M. ve Feather, N. T. (2016). Reflecting on schadenfreude: Serious consequences of a misfortune for which one is not responsible diminish previously expressed schadenfreude; the role of immorality appraisals and moral emotions. Motivation and Emotion, 40(6), 895-913. https://doi. org/10.1007/s11031-016-9580-8 google scholar
3. Berndsen, M., Thomas, E. F., McGarty, C., Bliuc, A. M. ve Hendres, D. M. (2017). Glorifying national identification increases schadenfreude about asylum seekers when they are a threat, not entitled to seek asylum, and blamed for their adversity. Comprehensive Results in Social Psychology, 2(2-3), 166-198. https://doi.org/10.1080/23743603.2017.1360573 google scholar
4. Berndsen, M., Tiggemann, M. ve Chapman, S. (2017). “It wasn’t your fault, but......”: Schadenfreude about an undeserved misfortune. Motivation and Emotion, 41(6), 741-748. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11031-017-9639-1 google scholar
5. Bers, S. A. ve Rodin, J. (1984). Social-comparison jealousy: A developmental and motivational study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47(4), 766. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.47.4.766 google scholar
6. Brambilla, M. ve Riva, P. (2017). Predicting pleasure at others’ misfortune: Morality trumps sociability and competence in driving deservingness and schadenfreude. Motivation and Emotion, 41(2), 243253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-016-9594-2 google scholar
7. Brigham, N. L., Kelso, K. A., Jackson, M. A. ve Smith, R. H. (1997). The roles of invidious comparisons and deservingness in sympathy and schadenfreude. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 19(3), 363-380. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1903_6 google scholar
8. Buunk, A. P., Cohen-Schotanus, J. ve van Nek, R. H. (2007). Why and how people engage in social comparison while learning social skills in groups. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 11(3), 140. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/1089-2699.11.3.140 google scholar

9. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2007). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı. Pegem A Yayıncılık. google scholar
10. Cikara, M. (2015). Intergroup Schadenfreude: Motivating participation in collective violence. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 3, 12-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.007 google scholar
11. Cikara, M., Botvinick, M. M. ve Fiske, S. T. (2011a). Us versus them: Social identity shapes neural responses to intergroup competition and harm. Psychological Science, 22(3), 306-313. https://doi. org/10.1177/0956797610397667 google scholar
12. Cikara, M., Bruneau, E., Van Bavel, J. J. ve Saxe, R. (2014). Their pain gives us pleasure: How intergroup dynamics shape empathic failures and counter-empathic responses. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 55, 110-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2014.06.007 google scholar
13. Cikara, M., Bruneau, E. G. ve Saxe, R. R. (2011b). Us and them: Intergroup failures of empathy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(3), 149-153. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411408713 google scholar
14. Cikara, M. ve Fiske, S. T. (2014). Stereotypes and schadenfreude. W. W. Dijk ve J. W. Ouwerkerk (Ed.), Schadenfreude: Understanding pleasure at the misfortune of others (s. 151-169) içinde. Cambridge University Press. google scholar
15. Clanton, G. (2006). Jealousy and envy. J. E. Sets ve J. H. Turner (Ed.), Handbook of the sociology of emotions (s. 410-442) içinde. Springer. google scholar
16. Combs, D. J. Y., Powell, C. A. J., Schurtz, D. R. ve Smith, R. H. (2009). Politics, schadenfreude, and ingroup identification: The sometimes happy thing about a poor economy and death. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 635-646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.02.009 google scholar
17. Cortina, J. M. (1993). What is coefficient alpha? An examination of theory and applications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(1), 98. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.1.98 google scholar
18. Crusius, J. ve Lange, J. (2014). What catches the envious eye? Attentional biases within malicious and benign envy. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 55, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jesp.2014.05.007 google scholar
19. Crysel, L. (2014). Schadenfreude and the spread of a politician’s misfortune (Doktora tezi). University of Florida. google scholar
20. Çırpan, Y. ve Özdoğru, A. A. (2017). Turkish adaptation of BeMaS Benign and Malicious Envy Scale: Transliteral equivalence, reliability and validity study. Anatolian Journal of Psychiatry, 18(6), 577585. google scholar
21. Dalakas, V. ve Melancon, J. P. (2012). Fan identification, Schadenfreude toward hated rivals, and the mediating effects of Importance of Winning Index (IWIN). Journal of Services Marketing, 26(1), 51-59. https://doi.org/10.1108/08876041211199724 google scholar
22. Demir, E. ve Rigoni, U. (2017). You lose, I feel better: Rivalry between soccer teams and the impact of schadenfreude on stock market. Journal of Sports Economics, 18(1), 58-76. https://doi. org/10.1177/1527002514551801 google scholar
23. Dijkstra, P., Kuyper, H., Van der Werf, G., Buunk, A. P. ve van der Zee, Y. G. (2008). Social comparison in the classroom: A review. Review of Educational Research, 78(4), 828-879. https://doi. org/10.3102/0034654308321210 google scholar
24. Dvash, J. ve Shamay-Tsoory, S. G. (2011). Envy and schadenfreude: The neural correlates of competitive emotions. R. Ebstein, S. G. Shamay-Tsoory ve S. H. Chew (Ed.), From DNA to social cognition (s. 139-155) içinde. Wiley-Blackwell. google scholar
25. Erzi, S. (2019). Yardım davranışlarının schadenfreude, benlik saygısı ve benlik tehdit algısı bakımından incelenmesi. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 27(3), 1015-1021. https://doi.org/10.24106/kefdergi.2369 google scholar
26. Erzi, S. (2020). Dark Triad and schadenfreude: Mediating role of moral disengagement and relational aggression. Personality and Individual Differences, 157, 109827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. paid.2020.109827 google scholar
27. Feather, N. T. (2008). Effects of observer’s own status on reactions to a high achiever’s failure: Deservingness, resentment, schadenfreude, and sympathy. Australian Journal of Psychology, 60(1), 31-43. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530701458068 google scholar
28. Feather, N. T. (2012). Tall poppies, deservingness and schadenfreude. Psychologist, 25(6), 434-437. google scholar
29. Feather, N. T. (2014). Deservingness and schadenfreude. W. W. Dijk ve J. W. Ouwerkerk (Ed.), Schadenfreude: Understanding pleasure at the misfortune of others (s. 29-57) içinde. Cambridge University Press. google scholar
30. Feather, N. T. ve McKee, I. R. (2014). Deservingness, liking relations, schadenfreude, and other discrete emotions in the context of the outcomes of plagiarism. Australian Journal of Psychology, 66(1), 18-27. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12030 google scholar
31. Feather, N. T. ve Nairn, K. (2005). Resentment, envy, schadenfreude, and sympathy: Effects of own and other’s deserved or undeserved status. Australian Journal of Psychology, 57(2), 87-102. https://doi. org/10.1080/00049530500048672 google scholar
32. Feather, N. T. ve Sherman, R. (2002). Envy, resentment, schadenfreude, and sympathy: Reactions to deserved and undeserved achievement and subsequent failure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(7), 953-961. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616720202800708 google scholar
33. Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117-140. https:// doi.org/10.1177/001872675400700202 google scholar
34. Greitemeyer, T., Osswald, S. ve Brauer, M. (2010). Playing prosocial video games increases empathy and decreases schadenfreude. Emotion, 10(6), 796-802. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020194 google scholar
35. Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. Wiley. google scholar
36. James, S., Kavanagh, P. S., Jonason, P. K., Chonody, J. M. ve Scrutton, H. E. (2014). The Dark Triad, schadenfreude, and sensational interests: Dark personalities, dark emotions, and dark behaviors. Personality and Individual Differences, 68, 211-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.04.020 google scholar
37. Jung, K. (2017). Happiness as an additional antecedent of schadenfreude. Journal of Positive Psychology, 12(2), 186-196. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1173224 google scholar
38. Kağıtçıbaşı, C. (1996). The autonomous-relationalself: A new synthesis. European Psychologist, 1(3), 180-186. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040.1.3.180 google scholar
39. Kim, J. J. ve Kim, J. (2018). Effects of social identity and schadenfreude on attitude toward brand sponsoring an instant replay review: The moderating role of rivalry and suspense. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 17(6), 542-552. https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.1738 google scholar
40. Krizan, Z. ve Johar, O. (2012). Envy divides the two faces of narcissism. Journal Of Personality, 80(5), 1415-1451. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00767.x google scholar
41. Kuipers, G. (2014). Schadenfreude and social life: A comparative perspective on the expression and regulation of mirth at the expense of others. W. W. Dijk ve J. W. Ouwerkerk (Ed.), Schadenfreude. Understanding pleasure at the misfortune of others (s. 259-294) içinde. Cambridge University Press. google scholar
42. Lange, J. ve Crusius, J. (2015). Dispositional envy revisited: Unraveling the motivational dynamics of benign and malicious envy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(2), 284-294. https://doi. org/10.1177/0146167214564959 google scholar
43. Leach, C. W. ve Spears, R. (2009). Dejection at in-group defeat and schadenfreude toward second- and third-party out-groups. Emotion, 9(5), 659-665. google scholar
44. Lehr, S. A., Ferreira, M. L. ve Banaji, M. R. (2019). When outgroup negativity trumps ingroup positivity: Fans of the Boston Red Sox and New York Yankees place greater value on rival losses than own-team gains. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 22(1), 26-42. https://doi. org/10.1177/1368430217712834 google scholar
45. Nederhof, A. J. (1985). Methods of coping with social desirability bias: A review. European Journal of Social Psychology, 15(3), 263-280. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420150303 google scholar
46. Nietzsche, F. (2012). Ahlakın soykütüğü: Bir polemik. (Z. Alangoya, Çev.). Kabalcı Yayınları. (Orijinal Basım Yılı 1887). google scholar
47. O’Meara, A., Davies, J. ve Hammond, S. (2011). The psychometric properties and utility of the Short Sadistic Impulse Scale (SSIS). Psychological Assessment, 23(2), 523. https://doi.org/10.1037/ a0022400 google scholar
48. Ouwerkerk, J. W. ve Van Dijk, W. W. (2014). Intergroup rivalry and schadenfreude. W. W. Dijk ve J. W. Ouwerkerk (Ed.), Schadenfreude: Understanding pleasure at the misfortune of others (s. 186-199) içinde. Cambridge University Press. google scholar
49. Ouwerkerk, J. W., van Dijk, W. W., Vonkeman, C. C. ve Spears, R. (2018). When we enjoy bad news about other groups: A social identity approach to out-group schadenfreude. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 21(1), 214-232. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430216663018 google scholar
50. Pancer, E., McShane, L. ve Poole, M. (2017). Schadenfreude and product failures: The role of product deservingness and product status. Journal of Marketing Management, 33(15-16), 1236-1255. https://doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2017.1381639 google scholar
51. Parkinson, B. (1996). Emotions are social. British Journal of Psychology, 87(4), 663-683. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1996.tb02615.x google scholar
52. Paulhus, D. L. ve Jones, D.N. (2015). Measures of dark personalities. G. J. Boyle, D. H. Saklofske ve G. Matthews (Ed.), Measures of personality and socialpsychological constructs (s. 562-594) içinde. Academic Press. google scholar
53. Paulus, F. M., Müller-Pinzler, L., Stolz, D. S., Mayer, A. V., Rademacher, L. ve Krach, S. (2018). Laugh or cringe? Common and distinct processes of reward-based schadenfreude and empathy-based fremdscham. Neuropsychologia, 116, 52-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. neuropsychologia.2017.05.030 google scholar
54. Phillips-Melancon, J. ve Dalakas, V. (2014). Brand rivalry and consumers’ Schadenfreude: The case of Apple. Services Marketing Quarterly, 35(2), 173-186. google scholar Pinker, S. (1997). How the mind works. NY: Norton. google scholar
55. Piskorz, J. E. ve Piskorz, Z. (2009). Situational determinants of envy and schadenfreude. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 40(3), 137-144. https://doi.org/ 10.2478/s10059-009-0030-2 google scholar
56. Plouffe, R. A., Saklofske, D. H. ve Smith, M. M. (2017). The assessment of sadistic personality: Preliminary psychometric evidence for a new measure. Personality and Individual Differences, 104, 166-171. https://doi.org/10.1016Zj.paid.2016.07.043 google scholar
57. Porter, S., Bhanwer, A., Woodworth, M. ve Black, P. J. (2014). Soldiers of misfortune: An examination of the Dark Triad and the experience of schadenfreude. Personality and Individual Differences, 67, 64-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.11.014 google scholar
58. Rogers, C. R. (1983). Empatik olmak değeri anlaşılmamış bir varoluş şeklidir [Empathic: An unappreciated way of being]. (F. Akkoyun, Çev.). Ankara Üniversitesitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 16(1), 103-124. google scholar
59. Salovey, P. ve Rodin, J. (1984). Some antecedents and consequences of social-comparison jealousy. Journal of personality and Social Psychology, 47(4), 780. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.47.4.780 google scholar
60. Schaubroeck, J. ve Lam, S. S. K. (2004). Comparing lots before and after: Promotion rejectees’ invidious reactions to promotees. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 94, 33-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2004.01.001 google scholar
61. Schopenhauer, A. (2007). Parerga ile Paralipomena: Ya da kısa felsefe denemeleri. (L. Özşar, Çev.). Biblos Kitabevi. (Orijinal Basım Yılı 1851). google scholar
62. Smith, R. H. (2000). Assimilative and contrastive emotional reactions to upward and downward social comparisons. J. Suls ve L. Wheeler (Ed.), Handbook of social comparison: Theory and research (s. 173-200) içinde. Kluwer Academic Publishers. google scholar
63. Smith, R. H., Turner, T. J., Garonzik, R., Leach, C. W., Urch-Druskat, V. ve Weston, C. M. (1996). Envy and schadenfreude. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(2), 158-168. https://doi. org/10.1177/0146167296222005 google scholar
64. Spears, R. (2013). Evidence for group-based schadenfreude from the gender domain: From intragroup to intergroup rivalry. TPM - Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 20(4), 301-311. https://doi.org/10.4473/TPM20.4.1 google scholar
65. Spears, R. ve Leach, C. W. (2009). Why neighbors don’t stop the killing: The role of group-based schadenfreude. V. M. Esses ve R. A. Vernon (Ed.), Explaining the breakdown of ethnic relations: Why neighbors kill (s. 93-120) içinde. Blackwell Pub. google scholar
66. Spreng, R. N., McKinnon, M. C., Mar, R. A. ve Levine, B. (2009). The Toronto Empathy Questionnaire: Scale development and initial validation of a factor-analytic solution to multiple empathy measures. Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(1), 62-71. https://doi. org/10.1080/00223890802484381 google scholar
67. Stein, R. (1992). Schadenfreude: A reply to Ben-Ze’ev. Iyyun: The Jerusalem Philosophical Quarterly, 41, 83-92. google scholar
68. Sung, H., Mills, B. M. ve Tainsky, S. (2017). From schadenfreude to mitfreude? Estimating viewership loss and rivalrous relationships in otherwise neutral markets. Sport Management Review, 20(2), 159-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2016.08.006 google scholar
69. Taber, K. S. (2018). The use of Cronbach’s alpha when developing and reporting research instruments in science education. Research in Science Education, 48(6), 1273-1296. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11165-016-9602-2 google scholar
70. Tesser, A. ve Campbell, J. (1980). Self-definition: The impact of the relative performance and similarity of others. Social Psychology Quarterly, 43(3), 341-347. https://doi.org/10.2307/3033737 google scholar
71. Torun, G. (2012). Sosyal kimliğin kıskançlık ve başkasının üzüntüsüne sevinme üzerindeki etkileri. (Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Hacettepe Üniversitesi. google scholar
72. Totan, T., Doğan, T. ve Sapmaz, F. (2012). The Toronto Empathy Questionnaire: Evaluation of psychometric properties among turkish university students. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 46, 179-198. google scholar
73. Van de Ven, N. (2014). Malicious envy and schadenfreude. W. W. Dijk ve J. W. Ouwerkerk (Ed.), Schadenfreude: Understanding pleasure at the misfortune of others (s. 110-117) içinde. Cambridge University Press. google scholar
74. van Dijk, W. W. ve Ouwerkerk, J. W. (2014). Schadenfreude: Understanding pleasure at the misfortune of others. Cambridge University Press. google scholar
75. van Dijk, W. W., Ouwerkerk, J. W. ve Goslinga, S. (2009). The impact of deservingness on schadenfreude and sympathy: Further evidence. Journal of Social Psychology, 149(3), 390-392. https://doi. org/10.3200/SOCP.149.3.390-392 google scholar
76. van Dijk, W. W., Ouwerkerk, J. W., Goslinga, S. ve Nieweg, M. (2005). Deservingness and Schadenfreude. Cognition and Emotion, 19(6), 933-939. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930541000066 google scholar
77. van Dijk, W. W., Ouwerkerk, J. W., Smith, R. H. ve Cikara, M. (2015). The role of self-evaluation and envy in schadenfreude. European Review of Social Psychology, 26(1), 247-282. https://doi.org/10. 1080/10463283.2015.1111600 google scholar
78. Watanabe, H. (2018). Sharing schadenfreude and late adolescents’ self-esteem: Does sharing schadenfreude of a deserved misfortune enhance self-esteem? International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 24(4), 438-446. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2018.1554500 google scholar
79. Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90(2), 245. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.90.2.245 google scholar
80. Yeniay, Y. (2012). Sosyal kimlik ile algılayan ve algılananın cinsiyetinin başkasının üzüntüsüne sevinme eğilimi üzerindeki etkileri [Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi]. Hacettepe Üniversitesi. google scholar