Investigating the Effect of Sex and Personality on Leader Emergence on an Initiating Structure Task

Yıl 2017, Cilt: 37 Sayı: 2, 19 - 50, 11.12.2017

İlknur Özalp Türetgen , Engin Ballı , İnci Erdem Artan

Öz

The number of studies that have been conducted in various cultures in relation to
leader emergence is limited. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of sex
and a pattern of self-monitoring, self-efficacy and dominance personality traits on leader
emergence in Turkey. Two hundred and fifteen business students from a public university
in Istanbul were categorized according to their sex and personality traits, and 60 of them
were appointed to 4-person leaderless discussion groups randomly. Each group worked
on an initiating structure type of task. After sessions were completed the participants rated
other group members on a leadership perception scale. The results indicated that while there
was no leader emergence difference between the sexes, the participants who were high on
self-monitoring, self-efficacy and dominance personality traits emerged as leaders more
than the participants who were low on all of these traits. These findings imply that both
the culture and the task that has been worked on may have some important contributions
in terms of leader emergence. 

Anahtar Kelimeler

Leader emergence, sex, self-monitoring, self-efficacy, dominance

Lider Ortaya Çıkışında Cinsiyet ve Kişiliğin Etkisinin Yapıyı Harekete Geçirme Türü Görevde İncelenmesi

Öz

Lider ortaya çıkışına yönelik olarak farklı kültürlerde yürütülmüş araştırmalar oldukça
kısıtlıdır. Bu araştırmada cinsiyet ile kendini ayarlama, öz etkinlik ve dominantlık kişilik
özelliklerinden oluşan bir modelin liderin ortaya çıkışı üzerindeki etkisi Türkiye’de incelen-
miştir. İstanbul’daki bir devlet üniversitesinin işletme bölümünde öğrenci olan 215 katılımcı
kişilik özellikleri ve cinsiyetlerine göre kategorilere ayrılmış ve 60’ı dörder kişiden oluşan
lidersiz tartışma gruplarına seçkisiz olarak atanmıştır. Her grup yapıyı harekete geçirme
türünde bir görev üzerinde çalışmıştır. Görevin tamamlanmasının ardından katılımcılar
diğer grup üyelerini ne kadar lider olarak algıladıkları açısından değerlendirmişlerdir.
Sonuçlar, lider ortaya çıkışında cinsiyete bağlı bir farklılık olmadığını gösterirken, her üç
kişilik özelliğinde de (kendini ayarlama, öz etkinlik ve dominantlık) yüksek puan alanların
düşük alanlara göre daha yüksek düzeyde lider olarak ortaya çıktıklarını ortaya koymuştur.
Bulgular, kültürün ve üzerinde çalışılan görevin lider ortaya çıkışında önemli rollere sahip
olabileceğini göstermektedir. 

Anahtar Kelimeler

Lider ortaya çıkışı, cinsiyet, kendini ayarlama, öz etkinlik, dominantlık

Kaynakça

• Anderson, C. ve Kilduff, G.J. (2009). Why do dominant personalities attain influence in face-to-face groups? The competence-signaling effects of trait dominance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(2), 491-503. doi: 10.1037/a0014201
• Antonakis, J., Day, D.V. ve Schyns, B. (2012). Leadership and individual differences: At the cusp of a renaissance. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(4), 643–650. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.05.002
• Atwater, L.E., Dionne, S.D., Avolio, B., Camobreco, J.E. ve Lau, A.W. (1999). A longitudinal study of the leadership development process: Individual differences predicting leader effectiveness. Human Relations, 52(12), 1543-1562. doi: 10.1177/001872679905201203
• Aycan, Z., Kanungo, R., Mendonca, M., Yu, K., Deller, J., Stahl, G. ve Kurshid, A. (2000). Impact of culture on human resource management practices: A 10‐country comparison. Applied Psychology, 49(1), 192-221. doi: 10.1111/1464-0597.00010
• Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
• Bandura, A., (1986). The explanatory and predictive scope of Self-Efficacy Theory. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4, 359-373. doi: 10.1521/jscp.1986.4.3.359
• Bandura, A., (1994). Self-efficacy. V.S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, (71-81), Vol.4, NewYork: Academic Press.
• Bartko, J.J. (1976). On various ıntraclass correlation reliability coefficients, Psychological Bulletin, 83(5), 762-765. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.83.5.762
• Baumgardner, T.L., Lord, R.G. ve Maher, K.J. (1991). Perceptions of women in management. R.G. Lord ve K.J. Maher (Ed.), Leadership and Information Processing: Linking Perceptions and Performance, (95-113). Unwin Hyman Inc.
• Bergman, L.R., Magnusson, D. ve El Khouri, B.M. (2003). Studying individual development in an interindividual context: A person-oriented approach. New York: Psychology Press, Taylor ve Francis Group.
• Brodbeck, F.C., Frese, M., Akerblom, S., Audia, G., Bakacsi, G., Bendova, H., ... ve Castel, P. (2000). Cultural variation of leadership prototypes across 22 European countries. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73(1), 1-29. doi: 10.1348/096317900166859
• Buss, D.M. ve Craik, K.H. (1980). The frequency concept of disposition: Dominance and prototypically dominant acts. Journal of Personality, 48(3), 379-392. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1980.tb00840.x
• Cattell, R.B. ve P. Cattell, H.E. (1995). Personality structure and the new fifth edition of the 16PF. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55(6), 926-937. doi: 10.1177/0013164495055006002
• Cronshaw, S. F. ve Ellis, R. J. (1991). A process investigation of self-monitoring and leader emergence. Small Group Research, 22(4), 403-420. doi: 10.1177/1046496491224001
• Day, D.V. ve Kilduff, M. (2003). Self-monitoring personality and work relationships: Individual differences in social networks. M.R. Barrick, A.M. Ryan ve N. Schmitt (Ed.), Personality and Work: Reconsidering the Role of Personality in Organizations, (205-228). CA: Jossey-Bass Inc.
• Day, D.V., Shleicher, D.J., Unckless, A.L. ve Hiller, N.J. (2002). Self-monitoring personality at work: A meta-analytic investigation of construct validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(2), 390-401. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.87.2.390
• Demirtürk, B. (1983). A preliminary study towards the development of the Turkish form of the California Psychological Inventory. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. İstanbul: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi.
• Dobbins, G.H., Long, W.S., Dedrick, E.J. ve Clemons, T.C. (1990). The role of self-monitoring and gender on leader emergence: A laboratory and field study. Journal of Management, 16(3), 609-618. doi: 10.1177/014920639001600306
• Dökmen, Z. (1991). Bem Cinsiyet Rolü Envanterinin geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Dergisi, 35(1), 81-89.
• Eagly, A.H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Eagly, A.H. ve Karau, S.J. (1991). Gender and the emergence of leaders: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(5), 685-710. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.60.5.685
• Eagly, A.H. ve Karau, S.J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological review, 109(3), 573-598. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.109.3.573
• Eagly, A.H., Karau, S.J. ve Makhijani, M.G. (1995). Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 125–145. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.125
• Ehrhart, M.G. ve Klein, K J. (2001). Predicting followers' preferences for charismatic leadership: The influence of follower values and personality. The Leadership Quarterly, 12(2), 153-179. doi: 10.1016/S1048-9843(01)00074-1
• Ellis, R.J. (1988). Self-monitoring and leadership emergence in groups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14(4), 681-693. doi: 10.1177/0146167288144004
• Ellis, R.J. ve Cronshaw, S.F. (1992). Self-monitoring and leader emergence: A test of moderator effects. Small Group Research, 23(1), 113-129. doi: 10.1177/ 1046496492231007
• Ellis, R.J., Adamson, R.S., Deszca, G. ve Cawsey, T.F. (1988). Self-monitoring and leadership emergence. Small Group Research, 19(3), 312-324. doi: 10.1177/ 104649648801900302
• Ensari, N., Riggio, R.E., Christian, J. ve Carslaw, G. (2011). Who emerges as a leader? Meta-analyses of individual differences as predictors of leadership emergence. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(4), 532-536. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2011.05.017
• Felfe, J. ve Schyns, B. (2006). Personality and the perception of transformational leadership: The impact of extraversion, neuroticism, personal need for structure, and occupational self‐efficacy. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36(3), 708-739. doi: 10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00026.x
• Foti, R.J. ve Hauenstein, N. (2007). Pattern and variable approaches in leadership emergence and effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(2), 347-355. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.92.2.347
• Foti, R.J., Thompson, N.J. ve Allgood, S.F. (2011). The pattern‐oriented approach: A framework for the experience of work. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 4(1), 122-125. doi: 10.1111/j.1754-9434.2010.01309.x
• Gershenoff, A.B. ve Foti, R.J. (2003). Leader emergence and gender roles in all-female groups: A contextual examination. Small Group Research, 34(2), 170-196. doi: 10.1177/1046496402250429
• Glick, W.H. (1985). Conceptualizing and measuring organizational and psychological climate: Pitfalls in multilevel research. Academy of Management Review, 10(3), 601-616. doi: 10.5465/AMR.1985.4279045
• Gough, H.G. (1987). CPI California Psychological Inventory administrator’s guide. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.
• Hall, R.J., Workman, J.W. ve Marchioro, C.A. (1998). Sex, task, and behavioral flexibility effects on leadership perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 74(1), 1-32. doi: 10.1006/obhd.1998.2754
• Haviland, W.A., Prins, H.E., Walrath, D. ve McBride, B. (2012). The essence of anthropology. CA: Cengage Learning.
• Hetland, H., Sandal, G.M. ve Johnsen, T.B. (2008). Followers' personality and leadership. Journal of Leadership ve Organizational Studies, 14(4), 322-331. doi: 10.1177/1548051808315550
• Hofstede, G. (1980). Motivation, leadership, and organization: Do American theories apply abroad? Organizational Dynamics, 9(1), 42-63. doi: 10.1016/0090-2616(80)90013-3
• Hofstede, G. (1983). The cultural relativity of organizational practices and theories. Journal of International Business Studies, 14, 75-89. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490867
• Hofstede, G. (1991). Culture and organizations: Software of the mind. NY: McGraw-Hill Inc.
• Hofstede, G. (1998). Masculinity and femininity: The taboo dimension of national cultures (Vol. 3). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
• Hofstede, G. ve McCrae, R.R. (2004). Personality and culture revisited: Linking traits and dimensions of culture. Cross-Cultural Research, 38(1), 52-88. doi: 10.1177/ 1069397103259443
• Hogan, R., Curphy, G.J. ve Hogan, J. (1994). What we know about leadership: Effectiveness and personality. American Psychologist, 49(6), 493-504. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X. 49. 6.493
• Ilies, R., Gerhardt, M.W. ve Le, H. (2004). Individual differences in leadership emergence: Integrating meta‐analytic findings and behavioral genetics estimates. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 12(3), 207-219. doi: 10.1111/j.0965-075X. 2004. 00275.x
• James, L.R. (1982). Aggregation bias in estimates of perceptual agreement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67(2), 219-229. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.67.2.219
• James, L.R., Demaree, R.G. ve Wolf, G. (1984). Estimating within-group interrater reliability with and without response bias. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(1), 85-98. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.69.1.85
• Javidan, M., Dorfman, P.W., De Luque, M.S. ve House, R.J. (2006). In the eye of the beholder: Cross cultural lessons in leadership from project GLOBE. The Academy of Management Perspectives, 20(1), 67-90. doi:10.5465/AMP.2006.19873410
• Judge, T.A., Bono, J.E., Ilies, R. ve Gerhardt, M.W. (2002). Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 765-780. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.765
• Judge, T.A., Piccolo, R.F. ve Ilies, R. (2004). The forgotten ones? The validity of consideration and initiating structure in leadership research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(3), 542-552. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.89.1.36
• Kabasakal, H. ve Bodur, M. (2007). Leadership in Turkey. J.S. Chhokar, F.C. Brodbeck ve R.J. House (Ed.), Culture and Leadership Across the World: The GLOBE Book of In Depth Studies of 25 Societies, (835-874). NY: Lawrance Erlbaum Associates.
• Kadılar, E. (2011). Üç kuşak kadının cinsiyet rolleri: Ankara örneği. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Mersin: Mersin Üniversitesi.
• Karakowsky, L., McBey, K. ve Miller, D.L. (2004). Gender, perceived competence, and power displays: Examining verbal interruptions in a group context. Small Group Research, 35(4), 407-439. doi: 10.1177/1046496404263728
• Karakowsky, L. ve Siegel, J.P. (1999). The effects of proportional representation and gender orientation of the task on emergent leadership behavior in mixed-gender work groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(4), 620-631. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.84.4.620
• Kent, R.L. ve Moss, S.E. (1990). Self-monitoring as a predictor of leader emergence. Psychological Reports, 66(3), 875-881. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1990.66.3.875
• Kent, R.L. ve Moss, S.E. (1994). Effects of sex and gender role on leader emergence. Academy of Management Journal, 37(5), 1335-1346. doi: 10.2307/256675
• Kolb, J.A. (1997). Are we still stereotyping leadership? A look at gender and other predictors of leader emergence. Small Group Research, 28(3), 370-393. doi: 10.1177/ 1046496497283003
• Koopman, P.L., Den Hartog, D.N. ve Konrad, E. ve diğ. (1999). National culture and leadership profiles in Europe: Some results from the GLOBE study. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8(4), 503-520. doi: 10.1080/ 135943299398131
• Lennox, R.D. ve Wolfe, R.N. (1984). Revision of the self-monitoring scale. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(6), 1349-1364. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514. 46. 6. 1349
• Lips, H.M. ve Keener, E. (2007). Effects of gender and dominance on leadership emergence: Incentives make a difference. Sex Roles, 56(9), 563-571. doi: 10.1007/s11199-007-9210-8
• Lord, R.G. ve Emrich, C.G. (2001). Thinking outside the box by looking inside the box: Extending the cognitive revolution in leadership research. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(4), 551–579. doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(00)00060-6
• Lord, R. ve Maher, K. (1991). Leadership and information processing: Linking perceptions and processes. Boston: Unwin Hyman.
• Lord, R.G., Brown, D.J., Harvey, J.L. ve Hall, R.J. (2001). Contextual constraints on prototype generation and their multilevel consequences for leadership perceptions. The Leadership Quarterly, 12(3), 311-338. doi: 10.1016/S1048-9843(01)00081-9
• Lord, R.G, De Vader, C.L. ve Alliger, G.M. (1986). A meta-analysis of the relationship between personality traits and leadership perceptions: An application of validity generalization procedures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(3), 402–410. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.71.3.402
• Lord, R.G., Foti, R.J. ve De Vader, C.L. (1984). A test of leadership categorization theory: Internal structure, information processing, and leadership perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34(3), 343-378. doi:10.1016/0030-5073 (84) 90043-6
• Mann, R.D. (1959). A review of the relationships between personality and performance in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 56(4), 241-270. doi: 10.1037/h0044587
• Manstead, A.S. ve Eekelen, S.A. (1998). Distinguishing between perceived behavioral control and self‐efficacy in the domain of academic achievement intentions and behaviors. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28(15), 1375-1392. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1998.tb01682.x
• McAllister, L.W. (1996). A practical guide to CPI interpretation, 3rd Edition. Mauntain View, CA: CPP Inc.
• Moorman, R.H. ve Blakely, G.L. (1995). Individualism-collectivism as an individual difference predictor of organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16(2), 127-142. doi: 10.1002/job.4030160204
• Moss, S.E. ve Kent, R.L. (1996). Gender and gender-role categorization of emergent leaders: A critical review and comprehensive analysis. Sex Roles, 35(1), 79-96. doi: 10.1007/ BF01548176
• Neubert, M.J. ve Taggar, S. (2004). Pathways to informal leadership: The moderating role of gender on the relationship of individual differences and team member network centrality to informal leadership emergence. The Leadership Quarterly, 15(2), 175-194. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.02.006
• Nyquist, L.V. ve Spence, J.T. (1986). Effects of dispositional dominance and sex role expectations on leadership behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(1), 87-93. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.50.1.87
• OSYM (2013). 2012-2013 öğretim yılı yükseköğretim istatistikleri. http://www.osym.gov.tr /belge/ 1-19213/2012-2013-ogretim-yili-yuksekogretim-istatistikleri.html adresinden Kasım 2015 tarihinde ulaşıldı.
• Özalp Türetgen, İ. (2006). Kendini ayarlama, öz etkinlik ve dominantlık özellikleriyle birlikte cinsiyet değişkenlerinin lider olarak algılanmadaki etkisinin deneysel ve alan çalışmalarında incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi. İstanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi.
• Özalp-Türetgen, İ. ve Cesur, S. (2005). ÖzEtkinlik Ölçeği’nin psikometrik özellikleri-I. Öneri Dergisi, 6(24), 305-312.
• Özalp-Türetgen, İ. ve Cesur, S. (2006). Gözden Geçirilmiş Kendini Ayarlama Ölçeği’nin güvenirlik ve geçerlik çalışması. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 9(17), 1-17.
• Özalp-Türetgen, İ. ve Cesur, S. (2007). Öz Etkinlik Ölçeğinin psikometrik özellikleri-II. Öneri Dergisi, 7(28), 337-343.
• Türetgen, İ.Ö., Unsal, P. ve Erdem, I. (2008). The effects of sex, gender role, and personality traits on leader emergence: Does culture make a difference? Small Group Research, 39(5), 588-615. doi: 10.1177/1046496408319884
• Özkan, T. ve Lajunen, T. (2005). Masculinity, femininity, and the Bem Sex Role Inventory in Turkey. Sex Roles, 52(1/2), 103-110. doi: 10.1007/s11199-005-1197-4
• Paşa, S.F., Kabasakal, H. ve Bodur, M. (2001). Society, organisations, and leadership in Turkey: Leadership and culture in the Middle East. Applied Psychology, 50(4), 559-589. doi: 10.1111/1464-0597.00073
• Pearlmutter, S. (1998). Self-efficacy and organizational change leadership. Administration in Social Work, 22(3), 23-38. doi: 10.1300/J147v22n03_02
• Pescosolido, A.T. (2002). Emergent leaders as managers of group emotion. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(5), 583-599. doi: 10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00145-5
• Ritter, B A. ve Yoder, J.D. (2004). Gender differences in leader emergence persist even for dominant women: An updated confirmation of role congruity theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28(3), 187-193. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00135.x
• Rubin, R.S., Bartels, L.K. ve Bommer, W.H. (2002). Are leaders smarter or do they just seem that way? Exploring perceived intellectual competence and leadership emergence. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 30(2), 105-118. doi: 10.2224/sbp.2002.30.2.105
• Rueb, J.D., Erskine, H.J. ve Foti, R.J. (2008). Intelligence, dominance, masculinity, and self-monitoring: Predicting leadership emergence in a military setting. Military Psychology, 20(4), 237-252. doi: 10.1080/08995600802345139
• Salter, C.R., Green, M., Ree, M., Carmody‐Bubb, M. ve Duncan, P.A. (2009). A study of follower's personality, implicit leadership perceptions, and leadership ratings. Journal of Leadership Studies, 2(4), 48-60. doi: 10.1002/jls.20080
• Schwarzer, R. ve Fuchs, R. (1995). Changing risk behaviors and adopting health behaviors: The role of self-efficacy beliefs. A. Bandura (Ed.), Self-efficacy in Changing Societies, (259-288). UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Schyns, B. ve Sanders, K. (2007). In the eyes of the beholder: Personality and the perception of leadership. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 37(10), 2345-2363. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2007.00261.x
• Shelton, S.H. (1990). Developing the construct of general self-efficacy. Psychological Reports, 66(3), 987-994.
• Sherer, M. ve Adams, C.H. (1983). Construct validation of the self-efficacy scale. Psychological Reports, 53(3), 899-902. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1983.53.3.899
• Sherer, M., Maddux, J. E., Mercandante, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., Jacobs, B. ve Rogers, R.W. (1982). The self-efficacy scale: Construction and validation. Psychological Reports, 51(2), 663-671. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1982.51.2.663
• Shondrick, S.J. ve Lord, R G. (2010). Implicit leadership and followership theories: Dynamic structures for leadership perceptions, memory, and leader-follower processes. G.P. Hodgkinson ve J.K. Ford (Ed.), International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol 25, (s. 1-33). UK: John Wiley ve Sons Ltd.
• Smith, J.A. ve Foti, R.J. (1998). A pattern approach to the study of leader emergence. The Leadership Quarterly, 9(2), 147-160. doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(98)90002-9 Snyder, M. (1974). Self-monitoring of expressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30(4), 526-537. doi: 10.1037/h0037039
• Stogdill, R. M. (1948). Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature. The Journal of Psychology, 25(1), 35-71. doi: 10.1080/00223980.1948. 9917362
• Taggar, S., Hackew, R. ve Saha, S. (1999). Leadership emergence in autonomous work teams: Antecedents and outcomes. Personnel Psychology, 52(4), 899-926. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1999.tb00184.x
• Tate, B. (2008). A longitudinal study of the relationships among self-monitoring, authentic leadership, and perceptions of leadership. Journal of Leadership ve Organizational Studies, 15(1), 16-29. doi: 10.1177/1548051808318002
• TÜİK (2014). Hanehalkı işgücü istatistikleri, Eylül 2014. Haber bülteni, 16014, http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=16014 adresinden Haziran 2017 tarihinde ulaşıldı.
• United Nations (2015). World’s women 2015: Trends and statistics. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, New York. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/gender/downloads/worldswomen2015_report.pdf adresinden Mayıs 2017 tarihinde ulaşıldı.
• Vardiman, P.D., Houghton, J.D. ve Jinkerson, D.L. (2006). Environmental leadership development: Toward a contextual model of leader selection and effectiveness. Leadership ve Organization Development Journal, 27(2), 93-105. doi: 10.1108/01437730610646606
• Wentworth, D.K. ve Anderson, L.R. (1984). Emergent leadership as a function of sex and task type. Sex Roles, 11(5), 513-524. doi: 10.1007/BF00287475
• World Bank ve Turkish State Planning Office (2009). Female labor force participation in Turkey: Trends, determinants and policy framework. Rapor No: 48508-TR. Washington, DC: World Bank. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ adresinden 1 Şubat 2017 tarihinde ulaşıldı.
• World Economic Forum (2016). The global gender gap report 2016. Geneva: World Economic Forum. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GGGR16/WEF_Global_Gender_ Gap_Report_2016.pdf adresinden Nisan 2017 tarihinde ulaşıldı.
• Zaccaro, S.J. (2012). Individual differences and leadership: Contributions to a third tipping point. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(4), 718-728. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.05.001
• Zaccaro, S.J., Foti, R.J. ve Kenny, D.A. (1991a). Self-monitoring and trait-based variance in leadership: An investigation of leader flexibility across multiple group situations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(2), 308-315. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.76.2.308
• Zaccaro, S.J., Gilbert, J.A., Thor, K.K. ve Mumford, M.D. (1991b). Leadership and social intelligence: Linking social perspectiveness and behavioral flexibility to leader effectiveness. The Leadership Quarterly, 2(4), 317-342. doi: 10.1016/1048-9843(91)90018-W
• Zaccaro, S. J., Kemp, C. ve Bader, P. (2004). Leader traits and attributes. J. Antonakis, A.T. Cianciolo ve R.J. Sternberg (Ed.), The nature of leadership, (101, 124). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications.