2000-2020 Yılları Arasında G7 Ülkeleri ve Türkiye’nin İşgücü Piyasası Yapısının ve Aktif İşgücü Piyasası Politikalarının Karşılaştırmalı Analizi

Öz

Dünyanın en gelişmiş yedi ülkesini temsil eden G7 ülkelerinde çalışma çağındaki nüfus hızla azalmakta ve 65 yaş üstü nüfus ise giderek artmaktadır. Türkiye’nin demografik yapısı incelendiğinde ise hem çalışma çağındaki nüfusunun hem de 65 yaş üstü nüfusun artış eğiliminde olduğu görülmektedir. G7 ülkeleri ile Türkiye’nin demografik yapısında yaşanan bu farklılaşma, işgücü piyasası yapısına ve Aktif İşgücü Piyasası Politikalarına (AİPP) ne ölçüde yansımaktadır? Araştırmanın temel dinamiğini oluşturan bu soru kapsamında çalışmada, G7 ülkeleri ve Türkiye’nin işgücü piyasasının yapısı ve bu ülkelerde uygulanmakta olan AİPP, 2000- 2020 yılları arasında Dünya Bankası ve OECD aracılığıyla elde edilen veriler ışığında betimsel olarak analiz edilmiştir. Çalışmanın amacı, demografik nüfus yapısının değişiminde dikkat çeken ülkelerin potansiyelleri analiz edilerek, hangi ülkelerin hangi istihdam politikalarıyla öne çıktığını, çeşitli değişkenlere göre avantaj ve dezavantajlarının neler olduğunu ülkelerin emek piyasalarının genel özellikleri ışığında geniş bir perspektiften analiz etmektir. Çalışmanın sonucuna göre, AİPP ülkelerin işgücü dinamiklerine göre farklılık göstermektedir. AİPP, ülkelerin GSYİH içindeki payına göre değerlendirildiğinde; Fransa eğitim, doğrudan iş yaratma ve işe yerleştirme uygulamalarında öne çıkan ülke olmuştur. İtalya istihdam teşvikleri, Almanya işe yerleştirme uygulamaları, Japonya ve Birleşik Krallık ise işgücünün becerini etkinleştirmede öne çıkmıştır. Türkiye’de uygulanan en yaygın AİPP eğitim programlarıdır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• İşgücü
• istihdam
• Aktif işgücü piyasası politikaları
• İşsizlik
• Demografik yapı

Comparative Analysis of the Labor Market Structure and Active Labor Market Policies of G7 Countries and Turkey Between 2000-2020

Öz

The population dynamics in the G7 countries, which represent the seven most developed countries in the world, differ from those in Turkiye. To what extent does this differentiation reflect in their labor market structure and active labor market policies This study descriptively analyzes the labor market structure and ALMPs of the G7 countries and Turkiye for the years 2000-2020 within the scope of this question, which constitutes the basic dynamic of the research. The study aims to analyze the potentials of the G7 countries and Turkiye, which attract attention with regard to changes in their population structures between 2000-2020 and to analyze which countries stand out in terms of active labor market policies with respect to various variables and their advantages and disadvantages in light of the general characteristics of these countries’ labor markets. According to the study results, ALMPs differ with respect to countries’ labor force dynamics. When evaluating active labor market policies according to countries’ GDP, France is seen to excel in education, direct job creation, and job placement practices; Italy in its employment incentives; Germany its job placement practices; and Japan and UK in their workforce skills activation. The most common ALMPs implemented in Turkiye involves training programs.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Labor force
• Employment
• Active labor market policies
• Unemployment
• Demographic structure

Kaynakça

1. ARRP. (2018). The aging readiness & competitiveness report Germany. Technical report, ARRP.
2. Askenazy, P. (2018). The changing of the French labor market, 2000-2017. IZA World of Labor, (412).
3. Aşkın, U., ve Aşkın, E. Ö. (2017). Aktif istihdam politikası olarak toplum yararına programlar: Tokat ili araştırması. Gazi İktisat ve İşletme Dergisi, 3(3), 1-16.
4. Bell, D. N., & Blanchflower, David G. (2009). What should be done about rising unemployment in the UK?, IZA Discussion Papers, No. 4040, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn,
5. Blanchard, O., & Wolfers, J. (2000). The role of shocks and institutions in the rise of European unemployment: the aggregate evidence. The Economic Journal, 110(462), C1-C33.
6. Bloom, H. S., Orr, L. L., Bell, S. H., Cave, G., Doolittle, F., Lin, W., & Bos, J. M. (1997). The benefits and costs of JTPA Title II-A programs: Key findings from the National Job Training Partnership Act study. Journal of Human Resources, 549-576.
7. Bown, C. P., & Freund, C. L. (2019). Active labor market policies: lessons from other countries for the United States. Peterson Institute for International Economics Working Paper, (19-2).
8. Brown, A., & J. Koettl. (2015). Active labor market programs - employment gain or fiscal drain?, IZA Journal of Labor Economics, Vol. 4/12.

9. Bugzel, C. (2011). Handreichung mit Regelungen zu Maßnahmen der aktiven Arbeitsmarktförderung. Arbeitskreis Rahmenrichtlinien und Empfehlungen, 3.
10. Card, D., & Hyslop, D. R. (2005). Estimating the effects of a time‐limited earnings subsidy for welfare‐leavers. Econometrica, 73(6), 1723-1770.
11. Coquet, B. (2015). Labour market measures in France 2008-13: The crisis and beyond. ILO, 1-91.
12. Crépon, B., Duflo, E., Gurgand, M., Rathelot, R., & Zamora, P. (2013). Do labor market policies have displacement effects? Evidence from a clustered randomized experiment. The quarterly journal of economics, 128(2), 531-580.
13. Dailysabah. (2021). Aging population continues to rise in once-young Turkey, Erişim Adresi: https://www.dailysabah.com/turkey/aging-population-continues-to-rise-in-once-young-turkey/news (10.07.2021).
14. Desplanques, G., & Rogers, G. (2008). Strengths and uncertainties of the French annual census surveys. Population, 63(3), 415-439.
15. Destatis. (2021). Impact of the coronavirus crisis on official statistics, Erişim Adresi: https://www.destatis.de/EN/Home/_node.html (11.07.2021).
16. Duell, N., & Vetter, T. (2020). The employment and social situation in Germany. European Parliament.
17. EPRS. (2020). Japan's ageing society, European Parliament, Erişim Adresi: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2020/659419/EPRS_BRI(2020)659419_EN.pdf (16.07.2021).
18. Erdoğan. M. (2021). İşten çıkarma yasağının 30 Haziran 2021'e kadar uzatılmasına ilişkin karar Resmi Gazete'de, Erişim Adres: https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/ekonomi/isten-cikarma-yasaginin-30-haziran-2021e-kadar-uzatilmasina-iliskin-karar-resmi-gazetede/2225266 (18.06.2021).
19. Fitzenberger, B., Orlanski, O., Osikominu, A., & Paul, M. (2013). Déjà Vu? Short-term training in Germany 1980–1992 and 2000–2003. Empirical Economics, 44(1), 289-328.
20. FPT (Federal-Provincial-Territorial). (2019). Understanding the impact of public policies and programs on the labour market decisions of older workers.
21. Fredriksson, D. (2020). Moving targets: Target groups of active labour market policies and transitions to employment in Europe. International Journal of Social Welfare, 29(3), 270-284.
22. Fuss, J., & Globerman, S. (2020). Canada's aging population and long-term projections for federal finances. Fraser Institute.
23. Hamermesh, D. S. (2019). The labor market in the US, 2000-2018. IZA World of Labor, (361v2).
24. Harasty, C. (Ed.). (2004). Successful employment and labour market policies in Europe and Asia and the Pacific. Employment Analysis Unit, Employment Strategy Department, International Labour Office.
25. Heikki, R., & Haruhiko, H. (2008). Employment policies in two ageing societies: Japan and Finland compared.
26. Herz, B., & Van Rens, T. (2020). The labor market in the UK, 2000-2019. IZA World of Labor, (422v2).
27. Heyer, G., Koch, S., Stephan, G., & Wolff, J. (2012). Evaluation der aktiven Arbeitsmarktpolitik: Ein Sachstandsbericht für die Instrumentenreform 2011. Journal for Labour Market Research, 45(1), 41-62. Howell, D. (2019). From decent to lousy jobs: New evidence on the decline in American job quality, 1979–2017. Washington Center for Equitable Growth.
28. IAB. (2021). Active labour market policies, Erişim Adres: https://www.iab-forum.de/en/active-labour-market-policies/ (25.07.2021).
29. ILO. (2011). Formulating a national policy on skills development, Erişim Adresi: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_emp/@ifp_skills/documents/publication/wcms_167172.pdf (13.06.2021).
30. ILO. (2013). Employment and social protection in the new demographic context: Fourth item on the agenda (Vol. 102). International Labour Office.
31. ILO.(2020). The role of public employment programmes and employment guarantee schemes in COVID-19 policy responses.
32. ISTAT.(2018). Rapporto Annuale 2018, la situazione del paese, Erişim Adresi: https://www.istat.it/storage/rapporto-annuale/2018/Rapportoannuale2018.pdf (12.10.2021).
33. İSO. (2006). İstihdam stratejileri ve Türkiye için bir model önerisi, İstanbul Sanayi Odası (İSO) Yayını, I. Baskı, İstanbul, Temmuz.
34. İŞKUR. (2020a). İŞKUR istatistik yıllığı.
35. İŞKUR. (2020b). İstatistik yıllıkları, Erişim Adresi:https://www.iskur.gov.tr/kurumsal-bilgi/istatistikler/ (23.09.2021).
36. JILPT. (Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training). (2014). Labor situation in Japan and its analysis: general overview 2015/2016. Japan Institute for labour policy and training.
37. Kamimura, Y., & Soma, N. (2013). Active labour market policies in Japan: a shift away from the company-centred model? Journal of Asian Public Policy, 6(1), 42–59. doi:10.1080/17516234.2013.7674
38. Kawaguchi, D., & Mori, H. (2019). The labor market in Japan, 2000-2018. IZA World of Labor, (385v2).
39. Kawaguchi, D., Kawata, K., & Toriyabe, T. (2021). An assessment of Abenomics from the labor market perspective. Asian Economic Policy Review, 16(2), 247-278.
40. Kluve, J., Card, D., Fertig, M., Góra, M., Jacobi, L., Jensen, P., ... & Weber, A. (2007). Active labor market policies in Europe: Performance and perspectives. Springer Science & Business Media.
41. Knoema. (2020). France - Population ages 65 years and above as a share of total population, Erişim Adresi:https://knoema.com/atlas/France/Population-aged-65-years-and-above (12.10.2021).
42. Koca, D. (2020). Sanayi devrimlerinin tarihsel arka planı ve işgücü becerileri üzerindeki yansımaları, OPUS International Journal of Society Researches, 16 (31) , 4531-4558 . DOI: 10.26466/opus.704841
43. Köstekli, Ş. İ. (2005). İstihdam stratejileri ve Türkiye için bir model önerisi. İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Çalışma Ekonomisi ve Endüstri İlişkileri Anabilim Dalı Doktora Tezi, İstanbul, (s 97).
44. Lewis, A. (2021). Housing an ageing population: a reading list, briefing paper, Number 09239, 3 June 2021
45. Marino, F., & Nunziata, L. (2017). The labor market in Italy, 2000-2016. IZA World of Labor, (407).
46. Martin, J. P., & Grubb, D. (2001). What works and for whom: A review of OECD countries' experiences with active labour market policies. Swedish economic policy review, 8(2), 9-56.
47. McCarthy, M. A., Van Horn, C., & Prebil, M. (2021). Building back better: A national jobs strategy. Policy proposals and a framework for action. New America.
48. Meager, N. (2009). The role of training and skills development in active labour market policies. International Journal of Training and Development, 13(1), 1-18.
49. Metin, B. (2003). Türkiye’de işgücü piyasasının genel görünümüne ilişkin sorunlar ve çözüm önerileri, Kamu İş Dergisi, Cilt:7, Sayı:2.
50. Mumcu, O., & Çağlar, E. (2006). Türkiye’nin nüfusu zenginlik kaynağı olabilir mi. Ekonomi Politikaları Araştırma Enstitüsü Politika Notu, 24, 2011.
51. OECD. (2005). The Jobs Strategy from a U.S. Perspective
52. OECD. (2014). Employment and skills strategies in the United States: OECD reviews on local job creation, Erişim Adresi: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/employment/employment-and-skills-strategies-in-the-united-states_9789264209398-en (12.06.2021).
53. OECD. (2019c). 2019 OECD skills strategy: Turkey, Erişim Adresi: https://www.oecd.org/turkey/Skills-Strategy-Turkey-EN.pdf (23.07.2021).
54. OECD. (2019d). 2019 OECD skills strategy: Japan, Erişim Adresi: https://www.oecd.org/japan/Skills-Strategy-Japan-EN.pdf (23.07.2021).
55. OECD. (2019e). 2019 OECD skills strategy: Italy, Erişim Adresi: https://www.oecd.org/italy/Skills-Strategy-Italy-EN.pdf (20.07.2021).
56. OECD. (2019f). 2019 OECD skills strategy: England, Erişim Adresi: https://www.oecd.org/unitedkingdom/Skills-Strategy-England-EN.pdf (24.07.2021).
57. OECD. (2019g). 2019 OECD skills strategy: Canada, Erişim Adresi: https://www.oecd.org/canada/Skills-Strategy-Canada-EN.pdf (12.07.2021).
58. OECD. (2019h). 2019 OECD skills strategy: France, Erişim Adresi: https://www.oecd.org/fr/france/Skills-Strategy-France-FR.pdf (10.07.2021).
59. OECD. (2019ı). 2019 OECD skills strategy: Germany, Erişim Adresi: https://www.oecd.org/germany/Skills-Strategy-Germany-EN.pdf (07.08.2021).
60. OECD. (2020a). Gender wage gap, Erişim Adresi: https://data.oecd.org/earnwage/gender-wage-gap.htm (11.08.2021).
61. OECD. (2021). Active labour market policy measures to mitigate the rise in (long-term) unemployment, Erişim Adresi: https://www.oecd.org/els/emp/almpmeasurescovid19.pdf (11.08.2021).
62. OECD.(2019a).Recent trends in the Italian labour market, in strengthening active labour market policies in Italy, OECD Publishing: Paris.
63. OECD.(2019b). Public expenditure and participant stocks on LMP, Erişim Adresi: https://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?DataSetCode=LMPEXP (11.07.2021).
64. OECD.(2020b). How's life? 2020: Measuring well-being, OECD Publishing: Paris.
65. Orlanda, N., Nico, G., & Romanıello, D. (2019). Employment, vocational education and training and social Policies in Italy, European Parliament.
66. Özdemir. M. Ç. (2019).Uluslararası işgücü piyasası analizi, Sakarya Ekonomik Ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Merkezi (SESAM). Parcivalle, U. (2021). Italy: Freeze on layoffs will come to an end for certain ındustries, Erişim Adresi: https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/hr-topics/global-hr/pages/italy-freeze-on-layoffs-ends-in-certain-industries.aspx (11.07.2021).
67. Riddell, W. C. (2018). The labor market in Canada, 2000–2016. IZA World of Labor.
68. Rosenfeld, J., Denice, P., & Laird, J. (2016). Union decline lowers wages of nonunion workers. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.
69. Sapancali, F. (2007). Türkiye’de işgücü piyasasi, sorunlar ve politikalar. Türk Ağır Sanayii ve Hizmet Sektörü Kamu İşverenleri Sendikası (TÜHİS) İş Hukuku ve İktisat Dergisi, 21(2-3), 8-30.
70. Saunders, R., & Maxwell, J. (2003). Changing labour markets: Key challenges facing Canada. Canadian Policy Research Networks Incorporated
71. Statista. (2020b). Canada-Median age of the total population, Erişim Adresi: https://knoema.com/atlas/Canada/topics/Demographics/Age/Median-age-of-population (11.08.2021).
72. Statista. (2021). Aging population of Italy-statistics & facts, Erişim Tarihi: https://www.statista.com/topics/8379/aging-population-of-italy/#:~:text=Italy%20has%20the%20third%20oldest,aged%2065%20years%20and%20older (10.10.2021).
73. The White House. (2014). Ready to work: Job-driven training and American opportunity. Washington: The White House.
74. The White House. (2016). Active labor market policies: Theory And Evıdence For What Works, Councıl Of Economıc Advısers Issue Brıef December 2016.
75. TOBB. (2020). 2020 Ekonomik Rapor, Erişim Adresi: https://tobb.org.tr/Documents/yayinlar/2021/77ER.pdf (12.09.2021).
76. Tuerkei. (2021). Mesleki ve geliştirme eğitimi, Erişim Adresi: https://tuerkei.diplo.de/tr-tr/themen/kultur/-/1797604 (11.07.2021).
77. TÜİK. (2020). İstatistiklerle yaşlılar, Erişim Adresi:https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Istatistiklerle-Yaslilar-2020-37227 (14.07.2021).
78. UN. (2019). World economic situation and prospects monthly briefing, Erişim Adresi: https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/document_gem/global-economic-monitoring-unit/monthly-briefing-on-the-world-economic-situation-and-prospects/ (11.08.2021).
79. World Bank. (2019). Labor force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+) (modeled ILO estimate), Erişim Adresi:https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.ZS kadınların işgücüne katılımı (19.08.2021).
80. World Bank. (2019a). Employment in services (% of total employment) (modeled ILO estimate), Erişim Adresi: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.SRV.EMPL.ZS (15.08.2021).
81. World Bank. (2019b). Labor force participation rate, total (% of total population ages 15-64) (modeled ILO estimate),Erişim Adresi: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.ACTI.ZS (27.07.2021).
82. World Bank. (2020a). Population ages 15-64 (% of total population), Erişim Adresi:https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.1564.TO.ZS (13.09.2021).
83. World Bank. (2020b). Population ages 65 and above (% of total population), Erişim Adresi:https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.65UP.TO.ZS (13.09.2021).
84. World Bank. (2020c). Employment to population ratio, 15+, total (%) (modeled ILO estimate), Erişim Adresi:https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.TOTL.SP.ZS (13.09.2021).
85. World Bank. (2020d). Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate), Erişim Adresi:https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS (13.09.2021).
86. World Bank. (2020e). Unemployment, youth total (% of total labor force ages 15-24) (modeled ILO estimate),Erişim Adresi: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.1524.ZS (13.09.2021).
87. Zoellner, M., Fritsch, M., & Wyrwich, M. (2018). An evaluation of German active labour market policies: a review of the empirical evidence. Journal of Entrepreneurship and Public Policy.