Bovine tuberculosis; a potential infectious zoonotic disease and some important perspectives in recent literature

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 3 Sayı: 2, 98 - 110, 31.12.2025

Moaz Ghaffar , Farah Qamar , Abdul Rauf , Hammad Ali , Ahmad Hassan , Muhammad Farooq , Asim Faraz , Syeda Maryam , Faizan Saleem , Muhammad Hussain Ghazali , Chanda Liaqat , Khoullah Fayyaz , Asma Akram

Öz

Bovine tuberculosis is an important and considerable public health issue. Based on recent literature, this review focuses on basic and beginner-level learners to provide a comprehensive understanding of the disease, its transmission, diagnostic procedures, control, and prevention, including pathogenesis and etiology, all in one package. Developing countries and especially the rural population are at risk. Veterinary professionals and animal handlers are a specific category within a population to be on risk for infection. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is known for its resilient nature, largely due to its complex cell wall structure. This feature is developing it into an unbeatable multidrug-resistant pathogen. Proper awareness, screening of animals, carcass examination, isolation and quarantine protocols, and living standards are the critical areas that need to be focused on for its control and prevention. The modern scientific era requires direct implementation of data through translational research for precision medicine and diagnostics. Post-antibiotic therapeutics will be in demand in the coming days, and the scientific community should rigorously work on it. Differential diagnosis is key to achieving precision diagnostics. Reliable and accurate laboratory tests like ELISA, PCR, and bacterial culture should be done rather than just clinical signs and lesion-based diagnosis.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Mycobacterium bovis , Tuberculosis , Zoonosis , Transmission , Control

Kaynakça

• Abbate, J. M., Arfuso, F., Iaria, C., Arestia, G., & Lanteri, G. (2020). Prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in slaughtered cattle in Sicily, Southern Italy. Animals, 10(9), 1473.
• Aboukhassib, H., Haraji, M., Bouslikhane, M., & Bitar, A. (2016). Bovine tuberculosis: Clinical presentation and diagnosis. J. Bacteriol. Mycol. Open Access, 3(2), 214-217.
• Ahmad, I., Kudi, C. A., Abdulkadir, A. I., & Saidu, S. N. A. (2017). Occurrence and distribution of bovine TB pathology by age, sex, and breed of cattle slaughtered in Gusau Abattoir, Zamfara State Nigeria. Tropical animal health and production, 49(3), 583-589.
• Alvarez, A. H., Estrada-Chávez, C., & Flores-Valdez, M. A. (2009). Molecular findings and approaches spotlighting Mycobacterium bovis persistence in cattle. Veterinary research, 40(3), 22.
• Ameni, G., Tadesse, K., Hailu, E., Deresse, Y., Medhin, G., Aseffa, A., Hewinson, G., & Berg, S. (2013). Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis between farmers and cattle in central Ethiopia. PloS one, 8(10), e76891.
• Ameni, G., Vordermeier, M., Firdessa, R., Aseffa, A., Hewinson, G., Gordon, S. V., & Berg, S. (2011). Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in grazing cattle in central Ethiopia. The Veterinary Journal, 188(3), 359-361.
• Anne, N. S., Ronald, B. S. M., Kumar, T. S., & Thangavelu, A. (2019). Conventional and molecular determination of drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis isolates in cattle. Tuberculosis, 114, 113-118.
• Ashford, D. A., Whitney, E., Raghunathan, P., & Cosivi, O. (2001). Epidemiology of selected mycobacteria that infect humans and other animals. Revue scientifique et technique (International Office of Epizootics), 20(1), 325-337.
• Balseiro, A., Thomas, J., Gortázar, C., & Risalde, M. A. (2020). Development and challenges in animal tuberculosis vaccination. Pathogens, 9(6), 472.
• Berrada, J. (1993). Mycobacterium bovis infection in cattle in Morocco: preparation and evaluation of chemical extracts for use in detection of immune responses. Iowa State University.
• Borham, M., Oreiby, A., El-Gedawy, A., Hegazy, Y., Khalifa, H. O., Al-Gaabary, M., & Matsumoto, T. (2022). Review on bovine tuberculosis: an emerging disease associated with multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium species. Pathogens, 11(7), 715.
• Broughan, J. M., Judge, J., Ely, E., Delahay, R. J., Wilson, G., Clifton-Hadley, R. S., Goodchild, A.V., Bishop, H., & Downs, S. H. (2016). A review of risk factors for bovine tuberculosis infection in cattle in the UK and Ireland. Epidemiology & Infection, 144(14), 2899-2926.
• Casal, C., Díez-Guerrier, A., Álvarez, J., Rodriguez-Campos, S., Mateos, A., Linscott, R., Martel, E., Lawrence, J.C., Whelan, C., Clarke, J., O’Brien, A., Dominguez, L., & Aranaz, A. (2014). Strategic use of serology for the diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis after intradermal skin testing. Veterinary Microbiology, 170(3-4), 342-351.
• Claridge, J., Diggle, P., McCann, C. M., Mulcahy, G., Flynn, R., McNair, J., Strain, S., Welsh, M., Baylis, M., & Williams, D. J. (2012). Fasciola hepatica is associated with the failure to detect bovine tuberculosis in dairy cattle. Nature communications, 3(1), 853.
• Cvetkovikj, I., Mrenoshki, S., Krstevski, K., Djadjovski, I., Angjelovski, B., Popova, Z., Janevski, A., Dodovski, A., & Cvetkovikj, A. (2017). Bovine tuberculosis in the Republic of Macedonia: postmortem, microbiological and molecular study in slaughtered reactor cattle. Macedonian Veterinary Review, 40(1).
• Dalovisio, J. R., Stetter, M., & Mikota-Wells, S. (1992). Rhinoceros' rhinorrhea: cause of an outbreak of infection due to airborne Mycobacterium bovis in zookeepers. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 15(4), 598-600.
• De la Rua-Domenech, R., Goodchild, A. T., Vordermeier, H. M., Hewinson, R. G., Christiansen, K. H., & Clifton-Hadley, R. S. (2006). Ante mortem diagnosis of tuberculosis in cattle: a review of the tuberculin tests, γ-interferon assay and other ancillary diagnostic techniques. Research in veterinary science, 81(2), 190-210.
• Dejene, S. W., Heitkönig, I. M., Prins, H. H., Lemma, F. A., Mekonnen, D. A., Alemu, Z. E., Kelkay, T.Z., & de Boer, W. F. (2016). Risk factors for bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in cattle in Ethiopia. PLoS One, 11(7), e0159083.
• Didkowska, A., Orłowska, B., Krajewska-Wędzina, M., Augustynowicz-Kopeć, E., Brzezińska, S., Żygowska, M., Wiśniewski, J., Kaczor, S., Welz, M., Olech, W., & Anusz, K. (2021). Microbiological and molecular monitoring for bovine tuberculosis in the Polish population of European bison (Bison bonasus). Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine, 28(4), 575–578.
• Domingo, M., Vidal, E. N. R. I. C., & Marco, A. (2014). Pathology of bovine tuberculosis. Research in veterinary science, 97, S20-S29.
• Egbe, N. F., Muwonge, A., Ndip, L., Kelly, R. F., Sander, M., Tanya, V., Ngu Ngwa, V., Handel, I.G., Novak, A., Ngandalo, R., Mazeri, S., Morgan, K.L., Asuquo, A., & de C. Bronsvoort, B.M. (2017). Molecular epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis in Cameroon. Scientific reports, 7(1), 4652.
• Eisenstadt, J., & Hall, G. S. (1995). Microbiology and classification of mycobacteria. Clinics in dermatology, 13(3), 197-206.
• Fanning, A., & Edwards, S. (1991). Mycobacterium bovis infection in human beings in contact with elk (Cervus elaphus) in Alberta, Canada. The Lancet, 338(8777), 1253-1255.
• Good, M., & Duignan, A. (2011). Perspectives on the history of bovine TB and the role of tuberculin in bovine TB eradication. Veterinary Medicine International, 2011(1), 410470.
• Grace, D., Mutua, F. K., Ochungo, P., Kruska, R. L., Jones, K., Brierley, L., Lapar, L., Said, M., Herrero, M., Phuc, P.M. Thao, N.B., Akuku, I., & Ogutu, F. (2012). Mapping of poverty and likely zoonoses hotspots.
• Grange, J. M., & Yates, M. D. (1994). Zoonotic aspects of Mycobacterium bovis infection. Veterinary microbiology, 40(1-2), 137-151.
• Harboe, M., Wiker, H. G., Ulvund, G., Lund-Pedersen, B., Andersen, Å. B., Hewinson, R. G., & Nagai, S. (1998). MPB70 and MPB83 as indicators of protein localization in mycobacterial cells. Infection and immunity, 66(1), 289-296.
• Houde, C., & Dery, P. (1988). Mycobacterium bovis sepsis in an infant with human immunodeficiency virus infection.
• Javed, M. T., Farooqi, A. F., & Ullah, H. (2009). Epidemiological basis of bovine tuberculosis in buffaloes. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, 9, 417-420.
• Khalifa, H. O., Ahmed, A. M., Oreiby, A. F., Eid, A. M., Shimamoto, T., & Shimamoto, T. (2016). Characterisation of the plasmid-mediated colistin resistance gene mcr-1 in Escherichia coli isolated from animals in Egypt. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 47(5), 413-414.
• Khan, I. A., & Khan, A. (2007). Prevalence and risk factors of bovine tuberculosis in Nili Ravi buffaloes in the Punjab, Pakistan. Italian Journal of Animal Science, 6(sup2), 817-820.
• Khan, I. A., Khan, A., Mubarak, A., & Ali, S. (2008). Factors affecting prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in Nili Ravi buffaloes. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 28(4), 155-158.
• Kuria, J. K. (2019). Diseases caused by Bacteria in cattle: tuberculosis. In Bacterial cattle diseases. IntechOpen.
• Liebana, E., Johnson, L., Gough, J., Durr, P., Jahans, K., Clifton-Hadley, R., Spencer, Y., Hewinsoon, R.G., & Downs, S. H. (2008). Pathology of naturally occurring bovine tuberculosis in England and Wales. The Veterinary Journal, 176(3), 354-360.
• Livingstone, P. G. (2000). Avances en materia de diagnóstico, control y erradicación de la tuberculosis bovina (Mycobacterium bovis) en animales domésticos y salvajes. 68th Sesión General, Comité International. Office International des Epizooties, Paris, France.
• LoBue P, A., Betacourt, W., Peter, C., & Moser K, S. (2003). Epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis disease in San Diego County, 1994–2000. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 7(2), 180-185.
• Manual, O. T. (2008). World organisation for animal health manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals (mammals, birds and bees). Volume, 2, 2008.
• Marianelli, C., Armas, F., Boniotti, M. B., Mazzone, P., Pacciarini, M. L., & Presti, V. D. M. L. (2015). Multiple drug-susceptibility screening in Mycobacterium bovis: new nucleotide polymorphisms in the embB gene among ethambutol susceptible strains. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 33, 39-44.
• McCallan, L., McNair, J., Skuce, R., & Branch, B. A. (2014). A review of the potential role of cattle slurry in the spread of bovine tuberculosis. Agri-food and Biosciences Institute, Northern Ireland.
• McKinley, T. J., Lipschutz-Powell, D., Mitchell, A. P., Wood, J. L., & Conlan, A. J. (2018). Risk factors and variations in detection of new bovine tuberculosis breakdowns via slaughterhouse surveillance in Great Britain. PLoS One, 13(6), e0198760.
• Medeiros, L. D. S., Marassi, C. D., Figueiredo, E. E. S., & Lilenbaum, W. (2010). Potential application of new diagnostic methods for controlling bovine tuberculosis in Brazil. brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 41, 531-541.
• Michalak, K., Austin, C., Diesel, S., Bacon, M. J., Zimmerman, P., & Maslow, J. N. (1998). Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection as a zoonotic disease: transmission between humans and elephants. Emerging infectious diseases, 4(2), 283.
• Michel, A. L., Müller, B., & Van Helden, P. D. (2010). Mycobacterium bovis at the animal–human interface: A problem, or not?. Veterinary microbiology, 140(3-4), 371-381.
• Morse, S. S., Mazet, J. A., Woolhouse, M., Parrish, C. R., Carroll, D., Karesh, W. B., Zambrana-Torrelio, C., Lipkin, I., & Daszak, P. (2012). Prediction and prevention of the next pandemic zoonosis. The Lancet, 380(9857), 1956-1965.
• Mukundan, H., Chambers, M., Waters, R., & Larsen, M. (Eds.). (2015). Tuberculosis, leprosy and mycobacterial diseases of man and animals: the many hosts of mycobacteria. CABI.
• Mumtaz, N., Chaudhry, Z. I., Mahmood, N., & Shakoori, A. R. (2008). Reliability of PCR for detection of bovine tuberculosis in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, 40(5), 347-351.
• Neill, S. D., Bryson, D. G., & Pollock, J. M. (2001). Pathogenesis of tuberculosis in cattle. Tuberculosis, 81(1-2), 79-86.
• Neonakis, I. K., Gitti, Z., Krambovitis, E., & Spandidos, D. A. (2008). Molecular diagnostic tools in mycobacteriology. Journal of microbiological methods, 75(1), 1-11.
• Olea-Popelka, F., Muwonge, A., Perera, A., Dean, A. S., Mumford, E., Erlacher-Vindel, E., Forcella, S., Silk, B.J., Ditiu, L., El Idrissi, A., Raviglione, M., Cosivi, O., LoBue, P., & Fujiwara, P. I. (2017). Zoonotic tuberculosis in human beings caused by Mycobacterium bovis—a call for action. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 17(1), e21-e25.
• Orłowska, B., Krajewska-Wędzina, M., Augustynowicz-Kopeć, E., Kozińska, M., Brzezińska, S., Zabost, A., Didkowska, A., Welz, M., Kaczor, S., Żmuda, P., & Anusz, K. (2020). Epidemiological characterization of Mycobacterium caprae strains isolated from wildlife in the Bieszczady Mountains, on the border of Southeast Poland. BMC veterinary research, 16(1), 362.
• Pascual-Linaza, A. V., Gordon, A. W., Stringer, L. A., & Menzies, F. D. (2017). Efficiency of slaughterhouse surveillance for the detection of bovine tuberculosis in cattle in Northern Ireland. Epidemiology & Infection, 145(5), 995-1005.
• Pollock, J. M., & Neill, D. S. (2002). Mycobacterium boviss infection and tuberculosis in cattle. The Veterinary Journal, 163(2), 115-127.
• Pritchard, D. G. (1988). A century of bovine tuberculosis 1888–1988: conquest and controversy. Journal of comparative pathology, 99(4), 357-399.
• Radostits, O. M., Gay, C., Hinchcliff, K. W., & Constable, P. D. (2006). Veterinary Medicine E-Book: A textbook of e Diseases of Cattle. Horses, Sheep, Pigs and Goats.
• Rodriguez, C. A. R., Zumárraga, M. J., Oliveira, E. D. D., Cataldi, A. A., Romano, M. I., Otto, H. H., Bonafe, V.L., & Ferreira, J. S. (2004). Caracterização molecular de isolados de Mycobacterium bovis do Estado de São Paulo Brasil, utilizando a técnica de spoligotyping. Arquivos do Instituto Biológico, 71(3), 277-282.
• Romha, G., Gebru, G., Asefa, A., & Mamo, G. (2018). Epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis in animals: Transmission dynamics and control challenges of zoonotic TB in Ethiopia. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 158, 1-17.
• Sa’idu, A. S., Okolocha, E. C., Dzikwi, A. A., Gamawa, A. A., Ibrahim, S., Kwaga, J. K. P., ... & Maigari, S. A. (2015). Public health implications and risk factors assessment of Mycobacterium bovis infections among abattoir personnel in Bauchi state, Nigeria. Journal of veterinary medicine, 2015(1), 718193.
• Salfinger, M., & Pfyffer, G. E. (1994). The new diagnostic mycobacteriology laboratory. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 13(11), 961-979.
• Schiller, I., Oesch, B., Vordermeier, H. M., Palmer, M. V., Harris, B. N., Orloski, K. A., Buddle, B.M., Thacker, T.C., Lyashchenko, K.P., & Waters, W. R. (2010). Bovine tuberculosis: a review of current and emerging diagnostic techniques in view of their relevance for disease control and eradication. Transboundary and emerging diseases, 57(4), 205-220.
• Sehrish, S., Liu, X. T., Lou, W. B., Zhang, S. Y., Ata, E. B., Yang, G. G., Wang, Q., Zeng, F.L., Leng, X., Shi, K., Azeem, R.M., Gong, Q.L., Song, Y.H., & Du, R. (2025). Prevalence of tuberculosis in bovines in Pakistan during 2000–2024: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12, 1525399.
• Thoen, C. O., Steele, J. H., & Gilsdorf, M. J. (Eds.). (2008). Mycobacterium bovis infection in animals and humans. John Wiley & Sons.
• Thompson, P. J., Cousins, D. V., Gow, B. L., Collins, D. M., Williamson, B. H., & Dagnia, H. T. (1993). Seals, seal trainers, and mycobacterial infection. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 147(1), 164-167.
• Thorel, M. F. (1994). Le role du laboratoire dans le contrôle de la tuberculose chez les animaux. Le Point vétérinaire: revue d'enseignement post-universitaie et de formation permanente, 26(159), 35-40.
• Torgerson, P., & Torgerson, D. (2008). Does risk to humans justify high cost of fighting bovine TB?. Nature, 455(7216), 1029-1029.
• Ullah, A., Khattak, U. S., Ayaz, S., Qureshi, M. S., Khan, I., Jan, I. U., Khattak, I., Taj, R., Nigar, S., Khan, N.U., Khan, M.A., & Sohail, M. L. (2019). Bovine Tuberculosis (bTB): Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors in Large Ruminants in the Central Zone of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, 51(1).
• Une, Y., & Mori, T. (2007). Tuberculosis as a zoonosis from a veterinary perspective. Comparative immunology, microbiology and infectious diseases, 30(5-6), 415-425.
• Vordermeier, H. M., Jones, G. J., Buddle, B. M., Hewinson, R. G., & Villarreal-Ramos, B. (2016). Bovine tuberculosis in cattle: vaccines, DIVA tests, and host biomarker discovery. Annual review of animal biosciences, 4(1), 87-109.
• Vranješ, A.P., Popović, M., & Jevtić, M. (2015). Raw milk consumption and health. Srpski arhiv za celokupno lekarstvo, 143(1-2), 87-92.
• Wards, B. J., Collins, D. M., & De Lisle, G. W. (1995). Detection of Mycobacterium bovis in tissues by polymerase chain reaction. Veterinary microbiology, 43(2-3), 227-240.
• Winkler, B., & Mathews, F. (2015). Environmental risk factors associated with bovine tuberculosis among cattle in high-risk areas. Biology letters, 11(11), 20150536.
• Winthrop, K. L., Scott, J., Brown, D., Jay, M. T., Rios, R., Mase, S., Richardson, D., Edmonson, A., MacLean, M., & Flood, J. (2005). Investigation of human contacts: a Mycobacterium bovis outbreak among cattle at a California dairy. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 9(7), 809-813.
• World Health Organization (WHO). (2018). Global status report on alcohol and health 2018. World Health Organization.
• World Health Organization. (2023). Strategic and Technical Advisory Group for Tuberculosis (STAG-TB): report of the 22nd meeting, Geneva, Switzerland, 6–8 June 2022. World Health Organization.
• Young, J. S., Gormley, E., & Wellington, E. M. (2005). Molecular detection of Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium bovis BCG (Pasteur) in soil. Applied and environmental microbiology, 71(4), 1946-1952.
• Żychska, M., Witkowski, L., Klementowska, A., Rzewuska, M., Kwiecień, E., Stefańska, I., Czopowicz, M., Szaluś-Jordanow, O., Mickiewicz, M., Moroz, A., Bonecka, J., & Kaba, J. (2021). Rhodococcus equi—Occurrence in Goats and Clinical Case Report. Pathogens, 10(9), 1141.