Sentetik Tarım Kimyasallarının Ekosistem ve İnsan Sağlığına Etkileri: Sürdürülebilir Alternatiflerin Değerlendirilmesi

Öz

Tarım sektöründe verimliliği artırmak amacıyla yaygın biçimde kullanılan sentetik kimyasal gübreler, pestisitler (herbisitler, fungisitler) ve benzeri girdiler, kısa vadede ürün miktarını artırsa da uzun vadede çevresel bozulmalara ve insan sağlığı üzerinde ciddi risklere yol açabilmektedir. Bu bileşikler, doğrudan laboratuvar ortamında üretilmiş olup, doğal döngülere entegre olmayan sentetik içerik taşımaktadır. Toprak, su ve hava kalitesini olumsuz etkileyen bu maddeler aynı zamanda biyolojik çeşitliliğin azalmasına, toprak mikrobiyotasının bozulmasına ve gıda zincirinde kimyasal kalıntıların birikmesine neden olmaktadır. İnsan sağlığı açısından bakıldığında, pestisit kalıntılarının kronik hastalıklar, hormonal bozukluklar ve kanser türleriyle ilişkili olabileceği çeşitli çalışmalarda belirtilmiştir. Bu derleme çalışmasında, tarımda kullanılan sentetik kimyasalların ekosistem ve insan sağlığı üzerindeki etkileri kapsamlı şekilde ele alınmakta; organik tarım, biyolojik mücadele, agroekolojik uygulamalar, mekanik yöntemler ve yapay zeka destekli sistemler gibi alternatif uygulamalar değerlendirilmektedir. Çalışmada, sürdürülebilir tarıma geçiş sürecinde bu alternatiflerin potansiyeli vurgulanmakta; politika yapıcılar ve uygulayıcılar için stratejik öneriler sunulmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Sentetik tarım kimyasalları
• Pestisit
• Çevre kirliliği
• Organik tarım
• Biyolojik mücadele
• Agroekoloji
• Sürdürülebilirlik

Impacts of Synthetic Agricultural Chemicals on Ecosystems and Human Health: An Evaluation of Sustainable Alternatives

Öz

The widespread use of synthetic chemical inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides (herbicides, fungicides) and similar compounds in the agricultural sector has significantly enhanced productivity in the short term. However, their long-term effects pose serious risks to both environmental integrity and human health. These substances, which are artificially produced in laboratory settings and not integrated into natural ecological cycles, degrade soil, water, and air quality. Moreover, they contribute to the loss of biodiversity, disruption of soil microbiota, and accumulation of chemical residues in the food chain. From a public health perspective, numerous studies have linked pesticide residues to chronic diseases, hormonal disorders, and various types of cancer. This review comprehensively examines the ecological and health-related impacts of synthetic chemicals used in agriculture. It also evaluates a range of alternative approaches, including organic farming, biological control, agroecological practices, mechanical methods, and AI-assisted systems. The study emphasizes the potential of these alternatives in facilitating a transition toward sustainable agriculture and offers strategic recommendations for policymakers and practitioners.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Synthetic agrochemicals
• Pesticides
• Environmental pollution
• Organic farming
• Biological control
• Agroecology
• Sustainability

Kaynakça

1. Abdul Aziz, M., Brini, F., Rouached, H., & Masmoudi, K. (2022, Kasım 8). Genetically engineered crops for sustainably enhanced food production systems. Frontiers in Plant Science, C. 13. Frontiers Media S.A. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.1027828
2. Akdoğan, A., Divrikli, Ü., & Elçi, L. (2012). Pestisitlerin Önemi ve Ekosisteme Etkileri. Akademik Gıda, 10(1), 125-132.
3. Altıkat, A., Turan, T., Ekmekyapar, F., & Bingül, Z. (2009). Türkiye’de Pestisit Kullanımı ve Çevreye Olan Etkileri. Içinde Atatürk Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Derg (C. 40).
4. Alvi, M. H., Ali, H., Haider, K., Chughtai, A. H., Abdullah, M., Batool, S., … Hussain, S. (2025, Mart 1). Chemically Degraded Soil: Strategies for Mitigating its Toxicity and Enhancing Sustainable Crop Production. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, C. 25, ss. 363-381. Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-024-02138-5
5. Anderson, C. R., Bruil, J., Chappell, M. J., Kiss, C., & Pimbert, M. P. (2019). From transition to domains of transformation: Getting to sustainable and just food systems through agroecology. Sustainability (Switzerland), 11(19). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11195272
6. Animasaun, D. A., Adedibu, P. A., Shkryl, Y., Emmanuel, F. O., Tekutyeva, L., & Balabanova, L. (2023, Ağustos 1). Modern Plant Biotechnology: An Antidote against Global Food Insecurity. Agronomy, C. 13. Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI). https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13082038
7. Arab, A., & Mostafalou, S. (2022). Neurotoxicity of pesticides in the context of CNS chronic diseases. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, C. 32. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2021.1987396
8. Aydınbaş, G. (2023). İktisadi Perspektiften Akıllı Tarım (Tarım 4.0) Üzerine Bir İnceleme. BİLTÜRK Journal of Economics and Related Studies. https://doi.org/10.47103/bilturk.1218500

9. Ayiti, O. E., & Babalola, O. O. (2022, Mart 24). Factors Influencing Soil Nitrification Process and the Effect on Environment and Health. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, C. 6. Frontiers Media S.A. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2022.821994
10. Ayyıldız, M. (2022). Türkiye’de kimyasal pestisit kullanımının ekonomi ve çevre yönüyle değerlendirmesi. ÇOMÜ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 10(2), 267-274. https://doi.org/10.33202/comuagri.1164293
11. Baker, B. P., Green, T. A., & Loker, A. J. (2020). Biological control and integrated pest management in organic and conventional systems. Biological Control, C. 140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2019.104095
12. Bale, J. S., Van Lenteren, J. C., & Bigler, F. (2008, Şubat 27). Biological control and sustainable food production. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, C. 363, ss. 761-776. Royal Society. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2182
13. Beyuo, J., Sackey, L. N. A., Yeboah, C., Kayoung, P. Y., & Koudadje, D. (2024). The implications of pesticide residue in food crops on human health: a critical review. Discover Agriculture, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44279-024-00141-z
14. Bijay-Singh, & Craswell, E. (2021). Fertilizers and nitrate pollution of surface and ground water: an increasingly pervasive global problem. SN Applied Sciences, C. 3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-021-04521-8
15. Botnaru, A. A., Lupu, A., Morariu, P. C., Jităreanu, A., Nedelcu, A. H., Morariu, B. A., … Morariu, I. D. (2025, Haziran 1). Neurotoxic Effects of Pesticides: Implications for Neurodegenerative and Neurobehavioral Disorders. Journal of Xenobiotics, C. 15. Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI). https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15030083
16. Brunelle, T., Chakir, R., Carpentier, A., Dorin, B., Goll, D., Guilpart, N., … Tang, F. H. M. (2024). Reducing chemical inputs in agriculture requires a system change. Communications Earth and Environment, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01533-1
17. Brühl, C. A., & Zaller, J. G. (2019). Biodiversity Decline as a Consequence of an Inappropriate Environmental Risk Assessment of Pesticides. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2019.00177
18. Choudhary, M., Muduli, M., & Ray, S. (2022). A comprehensive review on nitrate pollution and its remediation: conventional and recent approaches. Sustainable Water Resources Management, 8(4). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-022-00708-y
19. Collinge, D. B., Jensen, D. F., Rabiey, M., Sarrocco, S., Shaw, M. W., & Shaw, R. H. (2022, Haziran 1). Biological control of plant diseases – What has been achieved and what is the direction? Plant Pathology, C. 71, ss. 1024-1047. John Wiley and Sons Inc. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppa.13555
20. Cüre, B. (2022). Kimyasal ve Organik Gübrelerin Çevre Üzerine Etkisi. Biyosistem Mühendisliği Dergisi Biyosistem Müh Derg, 3(2), 98-107.
21. Çakmakçı, R., Salık, M. A., & Çakmakçı, S. (2023, Mayıs 1). Assessment and Principles of Environmentally Sustainable Food and Agriculture Systems. Agriculture (Switzerland), C. 13. MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13051073
22. Deknock, A., De Troyer, N., Houbraken, M., Dominguez-Granda, L., Nolivos, I., Van Echelpoel, W., … Goethals, P. (2019). Distribution of agricultural pesticides in the freshwater environment of the Guayas river basin (Ecuador). Science of the Total Environment, 646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.185
23. Durán-Lara, E. F., Valderrama, A., & Marican, A. (2020, Şubat 1). Natural organic compounds for application in organic farming. Agriculture (Switzerland), C. 10. MDPI AG. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10020041
24. Echeverría-Sáenz, S., Spínola-Parallada, M., & Soto, A. C. (2021). Pesticides burden in neotropical rivers: Costa rica as a case study. Molecules, 26(23). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26237235
25. Elhamalawy, O., Bakr, A., & Eissa, F. (2024). Impact of pesticides on non-target invertebrates in agricultural ecosystems. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 202, 105974. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PESTBP.2024.105974
26. Ewert, F., Baatz, R., & Finger, R. (2023). Agroecology for a Sustainable Agriculture and Food System: From Local Solutions to Large-Scale Adoption. Annual Review of Resource Economics, C. 15. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-102422-090105
27. Füsun Tatlidil, F., Boz, I., & Tatlidil, H. (2009). Farmers’ perception of sustainable agriculture and its determinants: A case study in Kahramanmaras province of Turkey. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 11(6). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-008-9168-x
28. Galli, M., Feldmann, F., Vogler, U. K., & Kogel, K. H. (2024, Nisan 1). Can biocontrol be the game-changer in integrated pest management? A review of definitions, methods and strategies. Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection, C. 131, ss. 265-291. Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41348-024-00878-1
29. Gamage, A., Gangahagedara, R., Subasinghe, S., Gamage, J., Guruge, C., Senaratne, S., … Merah, O. (2024). Advancing sustainability: The impact of emerging technologies in agriculture. Current Plant Biology, 40, 100420. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CPB.2024.100420
30. Güner, P., Aşkun, T., & Er, A. (2023). Entomopathogenic Fungi and their Potential Role in the Sustainable Biological Control of Storage Pests. Commagene Journal of Biology, C. 7. https://doi.org/10.31594/commagene.1284354
31. Heaps, J. W. (2006). Introduction to the Second Edition. Insect Management for Food Storage and Processing: Second Edition, 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-891127-46-5.50006-4
32. Hellmich, R. L., & Hellmich, K. A. (2012). Uses and Impact of Bt Maize. Nature Education Knowledge, 3(10).
33. Honatel, K. F., Arbo, B. D., Leal, M. B., da Silva Júnior, F. M. R., Garcia, S. C., & Arbo, M. D. (2024). An update of the impact of pesticide exposure on memory and learning. Discover Toxicology, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44339-024-00011-9
34. Islam, M. A., Amin, S. M. N., Rahman, M. A., Juraimi, A. S., Uddin, M. K., Brown, C. L., & Arshad, A. (2022). Chronic effects of organic pesticides on the aquatic environment and human health: A review. Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring and Management, C. 18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2022.100740
35. Javaid, M., Haleem, A., Singh, R. P., Suman, R., & Gonzalez, E. S. (2022). Understanding the adoption of Industry 4.0 technologies in improving environmental sustainability. Sustainable Operations and Computers, 3, 203-217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susoc.2022.01.008
36. Jepson, P. C., Murray, K., Bach, O., Bonilla, M. A., & Neumeister, L. (2020). Selection of pesticides to reduce human and environmental health risks: a global guideline and minimum pesticides list. The Lancet Planetary Health, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(19)30266-9
37. Kamrin, M. A. (2014). Silent Spring. Içinde Encyclopedia of Toxicology: Third Edition. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386454-3.00433-4
38. Karasahin, M. (2014). Nitrogen Uptake Efficiency in Plant Production and Negative Effects of Reactive Nitrogen on Environment. Academic Platform Journal of Engineering and Science, 2(3), 15-21. https://doi.org/10.5505/apjes.2014.38247
39. Karunathilake, E. M. B. M., Le, A. T., Heo, S., Chung, Y. S., & Mansoor, S. (2023, Ağustos 1). The Path to Smart Farming: Innovations and Opportunities in Precision Agriculture. Agriculture (Switzerland), C. 13. Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI). https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13081593
40. Kayişoğlu, Ç., & Türksoy, S. (2023). Tarımda Sürdürülebilirlik ve Gıda Güvenliği. Bursa Uludağ Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 37(1), 289-303. https://doi.org/10.20479/bursauludagziraat.1142135
41. Knobeloch, L., Salna, B., Hogan, A., Postle, J., & Anderson, H. (2000). Blue babies and nitrate-contaminated well water. Environmental Health Perspectives, 108(7). https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.00108675
42. Kolapo, F., Amankwah, C., Madukwe, O. J., Odemona, E. T., & Alaran, O. S. (2024). Review of the correlation between pesticide uses and human chronic diseases. Journal of Bioscience and Biotechnology Discovery, 9(3), 61-70. https://doi.org/10.31248/JBBD2024.217
43. Kumari, P., Jasrotia, P., Kumar, D., Kashyap, P. L., Kumar, S., Mishra, C. N., … Singh, G. P. (2022, Haziran 2). Biotechnological Approaches for Host Plant Resistance to Insect Pests. Frontiers in Genetics, C. 13. Frontiers Media S.A. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2022.914029
44. Maini, E., De Rosa, M., & Vecchio, Y. (2021). The role of education in the transition towards sustainable agriculture: A family farm learning perspective. Sustainability (Switzerland), 13(14). https://doi.org/10.3390/su13148099
45. Mnif, W., Hassine, A. I. H., Bouaziz, A., Bartegi, A., Thomas, O., & Roig, B. (2011). Effect of endocrine disruptor pesticides: A review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, C. 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8062265
46. Mostafalou, S., & Abdollahi, M. (2017). Pesticides: an update of human exposure and toxicity. Archives of Toxicology, C. 91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-016-1849-x
47. Mottet, A., Bicksler, A., Lucantoni, D., De Rosa, F., Scherf, B., Scopel, E., … Tittonell, P. (2020). Assessing Transitions to Sustainable Agricultural and Food Systems: A Tool for Agroecology Performance Evaluation (TAPE). Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.579154
48. Muhie, S. H. (2022, Aralık 1). Novel approaches and practices to sustainable agriculture. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, C. 10. Elsevier B.V. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2022.100446
49. Mukherjee, P., Banerjee, G., Saha, N., & Mazumdar, A. (2024). Overview on the Emergence of Pesticide Contamination and Treatment Methodologies. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 2024 235:9, 235(9), 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11270-024-07400-1
50. Nag, S. K., Sajina, A. M., Sahu, S. K., Das Sarkar, S., Samanta, S., Saha, K., & Bandyopadhyay, S. (2023). Assessment of environmental and human health risk from pesticide residues in river Gomti, Northern India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-28222-4
51. Navarro, I., de la Torre, A., Sanz, P., Abrantes, N., Campos, I., Alaoui, A., … Martínez, M. Á. (2024). Assessing pesticide residues occurrence and risks in water systems: A Pan-European and Argentina perspective. Water Research, 254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.121419
52. Newman, L. (2004). Pesticide Residues in Coastal Tropical Ecosystems—Distribution, Fate and Effects. International Journal of Toxicology, 23(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/10915810490436360
53. Nsoh, B., Katimbo, A., Guo, H., Heeren, D. M., Nakabuye, H. N., Qiao, X., … Kiraga, S. (2024). Internet of Things-Based Automated Solutions Utilizing Machine Learning for Smart and Real-Time Irrigation Management: A Review. Sensors, 24(23), 7480. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24237480
54. Ondrasek, G., Horvatinec, J., Kovačić, M. B., Reljić, M., Vinceković, M., Rathod, S., … Njavro, M. (2023). Land Resources in Organic Agriculture: Trends and Challenges in the Twenty-First Century from Global to Croatian Contexts. Agronomy, C. 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13061544
55. Öğütcü, H., & Güler, M. (2023). Biyogübreler. Tarım ve Doğa Bilimlerine Güncel Bakış. Ankara: Iksad Publishing House, p93.
56. Pandian, K., Mustaffa, M. R. A. F., Mahalingam, G., Paramasivam, A., John Prince, A., Gajendiren, M., … Varanasi, S. T. (2024). Synergistic conservation approaches for nurturing soil, food security and human health towards sustainable development goals. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, 16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2024.100479
57. Patel, N., Srivastav, A. L., Patel, A., Singh, A., Singh, S. K., Chaudhary, V. K., … Bhunia, B. (2022). Nitrate contamination in water resources, human health risks and its remediation through adsorption: a focused review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, C. 29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22377-2
58. Pathak, V. M., Verma, V. K., Rawat, B. S., Kaur, B., Babu, N., Sharma, A., … Cunill, J. M. (2022a). Current status of pesticide effects on environment, human health and it’s eco-friendly management as bioremediation: A comprehensive review. Frontiers in Microbiology, C. 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.962619
59. Pathak, V. M., Verma, V. K., Rawat, B. S., Kaur, B., Babu, N., Sharma, A., … Cunill, J. M. (2022b, Ağustos 17). Current status of pesticide effects on environment, human health and it’s eco-friendly management as bioremediation: A comprehensive review. Frontiers in Microbiology, C. 13. Frontiers Media S.A. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.962619
60. Pingali, P. L. (2012). Green revolution: Impacts, limits, andthe path ahead. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, C. 109. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0912953109
61. Ramirez, C., & Wright, A. J. (2025). Microclimate and growth advantages in the ‘Three sisters’ planting food system in an urban garden. Plant and Soil, 506(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-023-06419-3
62. Rani, L., Thapa, K., Kanojia, N., Sharma, N., Singh, S., Grewal, A. S., … Kaushal, J. (2021). An extensive review on the consequences of chemical pesticides on human health and environment. Journal of Cleaner Production, C. 283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124657
63. Reganold, J. P., & Wachter, J. M. (2016). Organic agriculture in the twenty-first century. Nature Plants, C. 2. https://doi.org/10.1038/NPLANTS.2015.221
64. Richardson, J. R., Fitsanakis, V., Westerink, R. H. S., & Kanthasamy, A. G. (2019, Eylül 1). Neurotoxicity of pesticides. Acta Neuropathologica, C. 138, ss. 343-362. Springer Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-019-02033-9
65. Rico, A., de Oliveira, R., Silva de Souza Nunes, G., Rizzi, C., Villa, S., De Caroli Vizioli, B., … Waichman, A. V. (2022). Ecological risk assessment of pesticides in urban streams of the Brazilian Amazon. Chemosphere, 291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132821
66. Rodrigues, E. T., Alpendurada, M. F., Ramos, F., & Pardal, M. Â. (2018). Environmental and human health risk indicators for agricultural pesticides in estuaries. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.12.047
67. Rosset, P. M., Val, V., Barbosa, L. P., & Mccune, N. (2021). Agroecology and La Vía Campesina II. Peasant agroecology schools and the formation of a sociohistorical and political subject. Desenvolvimento e Meio Ambiente, 58. https://doi.org/10.5380/dma.v58i0.81357
68. Sethi, S., Dhakad, S., & Arora, S. (2022). The Use of Biopesticides for Sustainable Farming: Way Forward toward Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Içinde Biotechnological Innovations for Environmental Bioremediation. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9001-3_24
69. Seufert, V. (2012). Organic Agriculture as an Opportunity for Sustainable Agricultural Development. Research to Practice Policy Briefs, (13).
70. Shang, H., He, D., Li, B., Chen, X., Luo, K., & Li, G. (2024, Ağustos 1). Environmentally Friendly and Effective Alternative Approaches to Pest Management: Recent Advances and Challenges. Agronomy, C. 14. Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI). https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14081807
71. Sharma, A., Kumar, V., Shahzad, B., Tanveer, M., Sidhu, G. P. S., Handa, N., … Thukral, A. K. (2019, Kasım 1). Worldwide pesticide usage and its impacts on ecosystem. SN Applied Sciences, C. 1. Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1485-1
72. Sharma, N., & Singhvi, R. (2017). Effects of Chemical Fertilizers and Pesticides on Human Health and Environment: A Review. International Journal of Agriculture, Environment and Biotechnology, 10(6). https://doi.org/10.5958/2230-732x.2017.00083.3
73. Shekhar, C., Khosya, R., Thakur, K., Mahajan, D., Kumar, R., Kumar, S., & Sharma, A. K. (2024, Aralık 1). A systematic review of pesticide exposure, associated risks, and long-term human health impacts. Toxicology Reports, C. 13. Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2024.101840
74. Sishu, F. K., Tilahun, S. A., Schmitter, P., Assefa, G., & Steenhuis, T. S. (2022). Pesticide Contamination of Surface and Groundwater in an Ethiopian Highlands’ Watershed. Water (Switzerland), 14(21). https://doi.org/10.3390/w14213446
75. Srivastava, A., Srivastava, A. K., Pandeya, A., & Pant, A. B. (2023). Pesticide mediated silent neurotoxicity and its unmasking: An update on recent progress. Toxicology, C. 500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2023.153665
76. Syafrudin, M., Kristanti, R. A., Yuniarto, A., Hadibarata, T., Rhee, J., Al-Onazi, W. A., … Al-Mohaimeed, A. M. (2021, Ocak 2). Pesticides in drinking water-a review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, C. 18, ss. 1-15. MDPI AG. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020468
77. Teng, J., Hou, R., Dungait, J. A. J., Zhou, G., Kuzyakov, Y., Zhang, J., … Delgado-Baquerizo, M. (2024). Conservation agriculture improves soil health and sustains crop yields after long-term warming. Nature communications, 15(1), 8785. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-53169-6
78. Tırınk, S. (2021). Environmental effects and diffuse pollution load calculation of animal wastes in Iğdır province and districts. BSJ Eng Sci, 4(2): 4350.
79. Tırınk, S. (2025). Diffuse pollutant load and environmental impacts of animal waste in Türkiye. BSJ Env Sci, 1(1): 8-13.
80. Tırınk, S., & Özkoç, H. B. (2021). Effects of toxic heavy metals on the environment and human health. Highly Interconnected & Endless Puzzle: Agriculture. Ankara: Iksad Publishing House, p99.
81. Tırınk, S., Böke Özkoç, H., Arıman, S. et al. (2025). Unlocking complex water quality dynamics: principal component analysis and multivariate adaptive regression splines integration for predicting water quality index in the Kızılırmak river. Environ Geochem Health 47, 434 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-025-02735-y
82. Tilman, D., Cassman, K. G., Matson, P. A., Naylor, R., & Polasky, S. (2002). Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature, C. 418. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01014
83. Tom, A. P., Jayakumar, J. S., Biju, M., Somarajan, J., & Ibrahim, M. A. (2021). Aquaculture wastewater treatment technologies and their sustainability: A review. Energy Nexus, C. 4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2021.100022
84. Tongo, I., Onokpasa, A., Emerure, F., Balogun, P. T., Enuneku, A. A., Erhunmwunse, N., … Ezemonye, L. (2022). Levels, bioaccumulation and biomagnification of pesticide residues in a tropical freshwater food web. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 19(3). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03212-6
85. Torres, J. B., & Bueno, A. de F. (2018, Kasım 1). Conservation biological control using selective insecticides – A valuable tool for IPM. Biological Control, C. 126, ss. 53-64. Academic Press Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2018.07.012
86. Turhan, Ş. (2005). TARIMDA SÜRDÜRÜLEBİLİRLİK VE ORGANİK TARIM. Içinde Tarım Ekonomisi Dergisi (C. 11).
87. TÜİK. (2023). TÜİK. Geliş tarihi 15 Haziran 2025, gönderen https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Bitkisel-Uretim-Istatistikleri-2023-49535&dil=2
88. Usta, C. (2013). Microorganisms in Biological Pest Control — A Review (Bacterial Toxin Application and Effect of Environmental Factors). Current Progress in Biological Research. https://doi.org/10.5772/55786
89. van der Werf, H. M. G., Knudsen, M. T., & Cederberg, C. (2020). Towards better representation of organic agriculture in life cycle assessment. Nature Sustainability 2020 3:6, 3(6), 419-425. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0489-6
90. van Lenteren, J. C., Bolckmans, K., Köhl, J., Ravensberg, W. J., & Urbaneja, A. (2018). Biological control using invertebrates and microorganisms: plenty of new opportunities. BioControl, 63(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10526-017-9801-4
91. Vessa, B., Perlman, B., McGovern, P. G., & Morelli, S. S. (2022). Endocrine disruptors and female fertility: a review of pesticide and plasticizer effects. F and S Reports, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xfre.2022.04.003
92. Vikas, & Ranjan, R. (2024). Agroecological approaches to sustainable development. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, C. 8. Frontiers Media SA. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2024.1405409
93. Volakakis, N., Kabourakis, E., Kiritsakis, A., Rempelos, L., & Leifert, C. (2022). Effect of Production System (Organic versus Conventional) on Olive Fruit and Oil Yields and Oil Quality Parameters in the Messara Valley, Crete, Greece; Results from a 3-Year Farm Survey. Agronomy, 12(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12071484
94. von Cossel, M., Scordia, D., Altieri, M., & Gresta, F. (2025). Spotlight on agroecological cropping practices to improve the resilience of farming systems: a qualitative review of meta-analytic studies. Frontiers in Agronomy, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fagro.2025.1495846
95. Vukicevich, E., Lowery, T., Bowen, P., Úrbez-Torres, J. R., & Hart, M. (2016, Eylül 1). Cover crops to increase soil microbial diversity and mitigate decline in perennial agriculture. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, C. 36. Springer-Verlag France. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-016-0385-7
96. Wan, N. F., Fu, L., Dainese, M., Kiær, L. P., Hu, Y. Q., Xin, F., … Scherber, C. (2025). Pesticides have negative effects on non-target organisms. Nature Communications , 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-56732-x
97. Wang, J., Chen, T., Zhang, Z., Song, M., Shen, T., Wang, X., … Liu, Y. (2025). Remodelling autoactive NLRs for broad-spectrum immunity in plants. Nature 2025, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09252-z
98. Wezel, A., Herren, B. G., Kerr, R. B., Barrios, E., Gonçalves, A. L. R., & Sinclair, F. (2020). Agroecological principles and elements and their implications for transitioning to sustainable food systems. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, C. 40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-020-00646-z
99. WHO (World Health Organization). (1999). Microbial pest control agent: Bacillus thuringiensis. World Health Organization.
100. Willer, Helga; Trávníček, Jan and Schlatter, Bernhard (Eds.) (2025) The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2025. Research Institute of Organic Agriculture FiBL and IFOAM - Organics International, Frick and Bonn.
101. Wolińska, A., Kuźniar, A., Zielenkiewicz, U., Banach, A., & Błaszczyk, M. (2018). Indicators of arable soils fatigue – Bacterial families and genera: A metagenomic approach. Ecological Indicators, 93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.05.033
102. Yeni, O., & Teoman, Ö. (2023). Agroekolojik Bakış Açısından Türkiye’de Tarımsal Sürdürülebilirlik. Fiscaoeconomia, 7(Özel Sayı), 120-151. https://doi.org/10.25295/fsecon.1355937
103. Zhang, L., Yan, C., Guo, Q., Zhang, J., & Ruiz-Menjivar, J. (2018). The impact of agricultural chemical inputs on environment: Global evidence from informetrics analysis and visualization. International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, 13(4). https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlct/cty039
104. Zhang, Q. F. (2024). From Sustainable Agriculture to Sustainable Agrifood Systems: A Comparative Review of Alternative Models. Sustainability (Switzerland), C. 16. Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI). https://doi.org/10.3390/su16229675
105. Zhang, X., Davidson, E. A., Mauzerall, D. L., Searchinger, T. D., Dumas, P., & Shen, Y. (2015). Managing nitrogen for sustainable development. Nature, C. 528. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature15743
106. Zhou, W., Li, M., & Achal, V. (2025). A comprehensive review on environmental and human health impacts of chemical pesticide usage. Emerging Contaminants, C. 11. KeAi Communications Co. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emcon.2024.100410