İş Stresini Azaltmada Kadınların ve Erkeklerin Sosyal Destek Kaynakları Değişir mi? Araştırma Görevlileri Üzerine Bir İnceleme

Öz

İş stresi, bir çalışanın verimliliğini düşüren, iş kazası yaşama riskini arttıran, düşük performansa ve işten ayrılma niyetine neden olan önemli bir örgütsel sorun olarak kabul edilmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, çalışanların iş dışı kaynaklardan algıladığı sosyal desteğin işyerinde yaşanan stresi nasıl etkilediğini ve bu etkinin kadınlara ve erkeklere göre ne şekilde farklılaştığını tespit etmektir. Çalışmada, üç sosyal destek kaynağı (aile, arkadaş özel bir insan), iş stresi ve cinsiyet arasındaki ilişkiler incelenmiştir. Amaca uygun olarak hazırlanan ölçeklerin yer aldığı bir anket formu aracılığıyla bir devlet üniversitesinde görev yapan 96 araştırma görevlisinden veri toplanmıştır. Hipotezler, SmartPLS 3 programı kullanılarak kısmi en küçük kareler yapısal eşitlik modellemesi ile test edilmiştir. Çalışmanın bulgularına göre, her üç sosyal destek kaynağının da iş stresini azaltıcı etkisi bulunmaktadır. Aile desteğinin iş stresini azaltıcı etkisinin yalnızca kadınlar için ve arkadaş desteğinin iş stresini azaltıcı etkisinin ise yalnızca erkekler için anlamlı olduğu belirlenmiştir. Özel bir insan desteğinin iş stresi üzerindeki etkisi ise kadınlara ve erkeklere göre farklılaşmamaktadır. Çalışma bulgularının sosyal destek ile çalışan sağlığı ilişkisine yönelik güncel anlayışa katkıda bulunacağı düşünülmektedir. Ayrıca çalışma bulguları, iş stresinin azaltılmasına yönelik etkili önlemlerin geliştirilmesinde üniversite yönetimlerine yardımcı olacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• İş Stresi
• Sosyal Destek
• Aile Desteği
• Arkadaş Desteği
• Özel İnsan Desteği

Do Social Support for Women and Men Change in Reducing Job Stress? An Examination on Research Assistants

Öz

Job stress is considered as a significant organizational problem that reduces employees’ productivity, increases risk of suffering an occupational accident, and causes low performance and turnover. This study determines how social support perceived by employees from nonwork sources affects the stress experienced in the workplace and how this effect differs for women and men. In the study, the relationships between three sources of social support, job stress, and gender were investigated. Data were collected through a questionnaire from 96 research assistants working at a state university in Turkey. Hypotheses were tested by partial least squares structural equation modeling using SmartPLS 3. The study findings show that all three sources of social support reduce job stress. Besides, it has been determined that the reducing effect of family support on job stress is significant only for women, and the reducing effect of friend support on job stress is significant only for men. The effect of significant other support on job stress does not differ between women and men. The findings of the study might contribute to the current understanding of the relationship between social support and employee health. Additionally, the study findings will assist the university administration in developing effective measures to reduce job stress.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Job Stress
• Social Support
• Support from Family
• Support from Friend
• Support from Significant Othe

Kaynakça

1. Abbasi, T. F. (2015). Impact of work overload on stress, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions with moderating role of islamic work ethics. Management Studies and Economic Systems, 2(1), 27-37. google scholar
2. Adamczyk, K. (2016). An investigation of loneliness and perceived social support among single and partnered young adults. Current Psychology, 35(4), 674-689. doi:10.1007/s12144-015-9337-7 google scholar
3. Almgren, G., Magarati, M., & Mogford, L. (2009). Examining the influences of gender, race, ethnicity, and social capital on the subjective health of adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 32(1), 109-133. doi:10.1016/j. adolescence.2007.11.003 google scholar
4. Aytaç, S., Bozkurt, V., Bayram, N., & Bilgel, N. (2009). Violence against health workers at a university hospital in turkey. The Journal of the World Universities Forum, 2(3), 35-52. doi:10.18848/1835-2030/CGP/v02i03/56593 google scholar
5. Aytaç, S., Bozkurt, V., Bayram, N., Yıldız, S., Aytaç, M., Akıncı, F. S., & Bilgel, N. (2011). Workplace violence: A study of Turkish workers. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 17(4), 385-402. doi: 10.1080/10803548.2011.11076902 google scholar
6. Bagger, J., & Li, A. (2014). How does supervisory family support influence employees’ attitudes and behaviors? A social exchange perspective. Journal of Management, 40(4), 1123-1150. doi:10.1177/0149206311413922 google scholar
7. Bağdoğan, S. Y., Yaman, Ü. T., Bilir, K. B. Ö., & Aytaç, S. (2020). Tükenmişlik ve işe ilişkin duygular arasında iş stresinin aracı rolü: Kamu çalışanları örneği. Journal of Economy Culture and Society, (61), 189-205. doi:10.26650/JECS2019-0077 google scholar
8. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173-1182. google scholar

9. Baruch-Feldman, C., Brondolo, E., Ben-Dayan, D., & Schwartz, J. (2002). Sources of social support and burnout, job satisfaction, and productivity. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7(1), 84-93. doi:10.1037//1076-8998.7.1.84 google scholar
10. Bellman, S., Forster, N., Still, L., & Cooper, C. L. (2003). Gender differences in the use of social support as a moderator of occupational stress. Stress and Health, 19(1), 45-58. doi:10.1002/smi.954 google scholar
11. Bolino, M. C., & Turnley, W. H. (2005). The personal costs of citizenship behavior: The relationship between individual initiative and role overload, job stress, and work-family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(4), 740-748. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.740 google scholar
12. Burke, R. J., Greenglass, E. R., & Schwarzer, R. (1996). Predicting teacher burnout over time: Effects of work stress, social support, and self-doubts on burnout and its consequences. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 9(3), 261-275. doi:10.1080/10615809608249406 google scholar
13. Büyükyılmaz, O., Vargün, H., & Uygurtürk, H. (2020). Muhasebe meslek mensuplarının mesleği bırakma niyeti üzerinde iş stresinin etkisi: Kariyer memnuniyetinin düzenleyicilik rolü. Muhasebe ve Denetime Bakış, 21(61), 105-124. google scholar
14. Chen, J., Li, J. P., Cao, B. R., Wang, F., Luo, L., & Xu, J. J. (2020). Mediating effects of self-efficacy, coping, burnout, and social support between job stress and mental health among young chinese nurses. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 76(1), 163-173. doi:10.1111/jan.14208 google scholar
15. Chen, J. C., & Silverthorne, C. (2008). The impact of locus of control on job stress, job performance and job satisfaction in taiwan. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 29(7), 572-582. doi:10.1108/01437730810906326 google scholar
16. Chin, W. W. (1998). The partial least squares approach for structural equation modeling. (İçinde) G. A. Marcoulides (Ed.), Modern Methods for Business Research. (ss. 295-336). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. google scholar
17. Chin, W. W. (2010). How to write up and report PLS analyses. (İçinde) V. Esposito Vinzi, W. W. Chin, J. Henseler, & H. Wang (Ed.), Handbook of Partial Least Squares: Concepts, Methods and Applications (ss. 655-690). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. google scholar
18. Choi, N. G., & Ha, J.-H. (2011). Relationship between spouse/partner support and depressive symptoms in older adults: Gender difference. Aging & Mental Health, 15(3), 307-317. doi:10.1080/13607863.2010.513042 google scholar
19. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2. ed.). New York: Routledge. google scholar
20. Colarossi, L. G., & Eccles, J. S. (2003). Differential effects of support providers on adolescents’ mental health. Social Work Research, 27(1), 19-30. doi:10.1093/swr/27.1.19 google scholar
21. Crevier, M. G., Marchand, A., Nachar, N., & Guay, S. (2014). Overt social support behaviors: Associations with PTSD, concurrent depressive symptoms and gender. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6(5), 519-526. doi:10.1037/a0033193 google scholar
22. Çetinkaya, F. F., & Korkmaz, F. (2019). Algılanan sosyal destek ile stres düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi: Üniversite öğrencileri üzerine bir araştırma. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 20(1), 91-103. google scholar
23. Daniels, K., & Guppy, A. (1994). Occupational stress, social support, job control, and psychological well-being. Human Relations, 47(12), 1523-1544. doi:10.1177/001872679404701205 google scholar
24. Dean, A., Kolody, B., & Wood, P. (1990). Effects of social support from various sources on depression in elderly persons. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 31(2), 148-161. google scholar
25. Drummond, S., O’Driscoll, M. P., Brough, P., Kalliath, T., Siu, O.-L., Timms, C., . . . Lo, D. (2017). The relationship of social support with well-being outcomes via work-family conflict: Moderating effects of gender, dependants and nationality. Human Relations, 70(5), 544-565. doi:10.1177/0018726716662696 google scholar
26. Efeoğlu, İ. E. (2006). İş-aile yaşam çatışmasının iş stresi, iş doyumu ve örgütsel bağlılık üzerindeki etkileri: İlaç sektöründe bir araştırma. (Doktora Tezi), Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Adana. google scholar
27. Efeoğlu, İ. E., & Özgen, H. (2007). İş-aile yaşam çatışmasının iş stresi, iş doyumu ve örgütsel bağlılık üzerindeki etkileri: İlaç sektöründe bir araştırma. Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 16(2), 237-254. google scholar
28. Eker, D., Arkar, H., & Yaldız, H. (2001). Çok boyutlu algılanan sosyal destek ölçeği’nin gözden geçirilmiş formunun faktör yapısı, geçerlik ve güvenirliği. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 12(1), 17-25. google scholar
29. Fenlason, K. J., & Beehr, T. A. (1994). Social support and occupational stress: Effects of talking to others. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15(2), 157-175. doi:10.1002/job.4030150205 google scholar
30. Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39-50. doi:10.2307/3151312 google scholar
31. Gadalla, T. M. (2009). Determinants, correlates and mediators of psychological distress: A longitudinal study. Social Science & Medicine, 68(12), 2199-2205. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.03.040 google scholar
32. Ganster, D. C., & Schaubroeck, J. (1991). Work stress and employee health. Journal of Management, 17(2), 235-271. doi:10.1177/014920639101700202 google scholar
33. Gülaçtı, F. (2010). The effect of perceived social support on subjective well-being. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 3844-3849. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.602 google scholar
34. Haenlein, M., & Kaplan, A. M. (2004). A beginner’s guide to partial least squares analysis. Understanding Statistics, 3(4), 283-297. doi:10.1207/s15328031us0304_4 google scholar
35. Hahn, V. C., Binnewies, C., Sonnentag, S., & Mojza, E. J. (2011). Learning how to recover from job stress: Effects of a recovery training program on recovery, recovery-related self-efficacy, and well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16(2), 202-216. doi:10.1037/a0022169 google scholar
36. Haines, V. A., Beggs, J. J., & Hurlbert, J. S. (2008). Contextualizing health outcomes: Do effects of network structure differ for women and men? Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 59(3-4), 164-175. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9441-3 google scholar
37. Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2014). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Harlow: Pearson New International Edition. google scholar
38. Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2017). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage. google scholar
39. Hair, J. F., Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C. M., Smith, D., & Reams, R. (2014). Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM): A useful tool for family business researchers. Journal of Family Business Strategy, 5(1), 105-115. doi:10.1016/j.jfbs.2014.01.002 google scholar
40. Halbesleben, J. R. B. (2006). Sources of social support and burnout: A meta-analytic test of the conservation of resources model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(5), 1134-1145. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.91.5.1134 google scholar
41. Henseler, J., Hubona, G., & Ray, P. A. (2017). Partial least squares path modeling: updated guidelines. (İçinde) H. Latan & R. Noonan (Ed.), Partial Least Squares Path Modeling: Basic Concepts, Methodological Issues and Applications (ss. 19-39). Cham: Springer International Publishing. google scholar
42. Henseler, J., Christian, M. R., & Rudolf, R. S. (2009). The use of partial least squares path modeling in international marketing. (İçinde) R. S. Rudolf & N. G. Pervez (Ed.), New Challenges to International Marketing (Vol. 20, ss. 277-319): Emerald Group Publishing Limited. google scholar
43. Hisli Şahin, N., Güler, M., & Basım, H. N. (2009). A tipi kişilik örüntüsünde bilişsel ve duygusal zekânın stresle başa çıkma ve stres belirtileri ile ilişkisi Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 20(3), 243-254. google scholar
44. House, R. H., & Rizzo, J. R. (1972). Role conflict and ambiguity as critical variables in a model of organizational behavior. Organizational Behavior & Human Performance, 7(3), 467-505. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(72)90030-X google scholar
45. Hulland, J. (1999). Use of partial least squares (PLS) in strategic management research: A review of four recent studies. Strategic Management Journal, 20(2), 195-204. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199902)20:2<195::AID-SMJ13>3.0.CO;2-7 google scholar
46. Iacovides, A., Fountoulakis, K. N., Kaprinis, S., & Kaprinis, G. (2003). The relationship between job stress, burnout and clinical depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 75(3), 209-221. doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(02)00101-5 google scholar
47. Judge, T. A., & Colquitt, J. A. (2004). Organizational justice and stress: The mediating role of work-family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(3), 395-404. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.3.395 google scholar
48. Jung, H. S., & Yoon, H. H. (2014). Antecedents and consequences of employees’ job stress in a foodservice industry: Focused on emotional labor and turnover intent. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 38, 84-88. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2014.01.007 google scholar
49. Karabacak, G., & Harlak, H. (2020). Otel çalışanlarının iş-aile yaşam çatışmalarının yordayıcıları olarak, iş-yaşam doyumu, iş stresi ve algılanan sosyal destek. Türk Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 4(3), 1923-1940. doi: 10.26677/TR1010.2020.458 google scholar
50. Kendler, K. S., Myers, J., & Prescott, C. A. (2005). Sex differences in the relationship between social support and risk for major depression: A longitudinal study of opposite-sex twin pairs. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(2), 250-256. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.2.250 google scholar
51. Klassen, R. M., & Chiu, M. M. (2010). Effects on teachers’ self-efficacy and job satisfaction: Teacher gender, years of experience, and job stress. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(3), 741-756. doi:10.1037/a0019237 google scholar
52. Kneavel, M. (2020). Relationship between gender, stress, and quality of social support. Psychological Reports, 0(0), 1-21. doi:10.1177/0033294120939844 google scholar
53. Lambert, E. G., Minor, K. I., Wells, J. B., & Hogan, N. L. (2016). Social support’s relationship to correctional staff job stress, job involvement, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. Social Science Journal, 53(1), 22-32. doi:10.1016/j.soscij.2015.10.001 google scholar
54. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer Publishing. google scholar
55. Leavy, R. L. (1983). Social support and psychological disorder: A review. Journal of Community Psychology, 11(1), 3-21. doi:10.1002/1520-6629(198301)11:1<3::AID-JCOP2290110102>3.0.CO;2-E google scholar
56. Lee, C.-Y. S., & Dik, B. J. (2017). Associations among stress, gender, sources of social support, and health in emerging adults. Stress and Health, 33(4), 378-388. doi:10.1002/smi.2722 google scholar
57. Liebler, C. A., & Sandefur, G. D. (2002). Gender differences in the exchange of social support with friends, neighbors, and co-workers at midlife. Social Science Research, 31(3), 364-391. doi:10.1016/S0049-089X(02)00006-6 google scholar
58. Liu, C., Spector, P. E., & Shi, L. (2008). Use of both qualitative and quantitative approaches to study job stress in different gender and occupational groups. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13(4), 357-370. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.13.4.357 google scholar
59. Matud, M. P. (2004). Gender differences in stress and coping styles. Personality and Individual Differences, 37(7), 1401-1415. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.01.010 google scholar
60. Morrison, R. L. (2009). Are women tending and befriending in the workplace? Gender differences in the relationship between workplace friendships and organizational outcomes. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 60(1-2), 1-13. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9513-4 google scholar
61. Motowidlo, S. J., Packard, J. S., & Manning, M. R. (1986). Occupational stress: Its causes and consequences for job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(4), 618-629. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.71.4.618 google scholar
62. Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Inc. google scholar
63. Özdevecioğlu, M. (2004). Sosyal destek ve yaşam tatmininin mesleki stres üzerindeki etkileri: Kayseri’de faaliyet gösteren işletme sahipleri ile bir araştırma. Hacettepe Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 22(1), 209-233. google scholar
64. Peterson, M., & Wilson, J. F. (2002). The culture-work-health model and work stress. American Journal of Health Behavior, 26(1), 16-24. doi:10.5993/AJHB.26.1.2 google scholar
65. Pettit, J. W., Roberts, R. E., Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R., & Yaroslavsky, I. (2011). Developmental relations between perceived social support and depressive symptoms through emerging adulthood: Blood is thicker than water. Journal of Family Psychology, 25(1), 127-136. doi:10.1037/a0022320 google scholar
66. Polatçı, S. (2015). Örgütsel ve sosyal destek algılarının yaşam tatmini üzerindeki etkisi: İş ve evlilik tatmininin aracılık rolü. Ekonomik ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 11(2), 25-44. google scholar
67. Ray, E. B., & Miller, K. I. (1994). Social support, home/work stress, and burnout: Who can help? Journal ofApplied Behavioral Science, 30(3), 357-373. doi:10.1177/0021886394303007 google scholar
68. Rousseau, V., & Aube, C. (2010). Social support at work and affective commitment to the organization: The moderating effect of job resource adequacy and ambient conditions. The Journal ofSocial Psychology, 150(4), 321-340. doi:10.1080/00224540903365380 google scholar
69. Roxburgh, S. (2004). “There just aren’t enough hours in the day’: The mental health consequences of time pressure. Journal ofHealth and Social Behavior, 45(2), 115-131. doi:10.1177/002214650404500201 google scholar
70. Rueger, S. Y., Malecki, C. K., & Demaray, M. K. (2010). Relationship between multiple sources of perceived social support and psychological and academic adjustment in early adolescence: Comparisons across gender. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 39(1), 47-61. doi:10.1007/s10964-008-9368-6 google scholar
71. Russell, D. W., Altmaier, E., & Van Velzen, D. (1987). Job-related stress, social support, and burnout among classroom teachers. Journal ofApplied Psychology, 72(2), 269-274. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.72.2.269 google scholar
72. Sangalang, C. C., & Gee, G. C. (2012). Depression and anxiety among asian americans: The effects of social support and strain. Social Work, 57(1), 49-60. google scholar
73. Sayıldı, H., & Büyükyılmaz, O. (2020). İş-aile çatışması, aile-iş çatışması ve iş stresi arasındaki ilişki: üniversite personeli üzerine bir araştırma. Economics Business and Organization Research, 2(1), 52-69. google scholar
74. Schraedley, M. A. P. K., Gotlib, I. H., & Hayward, C. (1999). Gender differences in correlates of depressive symptoms in adolescents. Journal ofAdolescent Health, 25(2), 98-108. doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(99)00038-5 google scholar
75. Schwarzer, R., & Hallum, S. (2008). Perceived teacher self-efficacy as a predictor of job stress and burnout: Mediation analyses. Applied Psychology, 57(s1), 152-171. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00359.x google scholar
76. Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2016). Research methods for business: A skill-building approach (7th Ed.). Chichester: Wiley. google scholar
77. Slavin, L. A., & Rainer, K. L. (1990). Gender differences in emotional support and depressive symptoms among adolescents: A prospective analysis. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18(3), 407-421. doi:10.1007/ BF00938115 google scholar
78. Sosik, J. J., & Godshalk, V. M. (2000). Leadership styles, mentoring functions received, and job-related stress: A conceptual model and preliminary study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(4), 365-390. doi:10.1002/ (sici)1099-1379(200006)21:4<365::aid-job14>3.0.co;2-h google scholar
79. Stoeva, A. Z., Chiu, R. K., & Greenhaus, J. H. (2002). Negative affectivity, role stress, and work-family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60(1), 1-16. doi:10.1006/jvbe.2001.1812 google scholar
80. Taylor, S. E. (2006). Tend and befriend: biobehavioral bases of affiliation under stress. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(6), 273-277. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00451.x google scholar
81. Taylor, S. E., Klein, L. C., Lewis, B. P., Gruenewald, T. L., Gurung, R. A. R., & Updegraff, J. A. (2000). Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychological Review, 107(3), 411-429. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.107.3.411 google scholar
82. Tuna, S. K., & Aslan, H. (2018). The relationship between perceived social support and organizational commitment levels of primary and secondary school teachers. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 6(5), 983-993. doi:10.13189/ujer.2018.060519 google scholar
83. Uncu, Y., Bayram, N., & Bilgel, N. (2007). Job related affective well-being among primary health care physicians. European Journal ofPublic Health, 17(5), 514-519. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckl264 google scholar
84. Vagg, P. R., Spielberger, C. D., & Wasala, C. F. (2002). Effects of organizational level and gender on stress in the workplace. International Journal of Stress Management, 9(4), 243-261. doi:10.1023/A:1019964331348 google scholar
85. Vinzi, V. E., Trinchera, L., & Amato, S. (2010). PLS path modeling: From foundations to recent developments and open issues for model assessment and improvement. (İçinde) V. Esposito Vinzi, W. W. Chin, J. Henseler, & H. Wang (Ed.), Handbook of Partial Least Squares: Concepts, Methods and Applications (ss. 47-82). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. google scholar
86. Viswesvaran, C., Sanchez, J. I., & Fisher, J. (1999). The role of social support in the process of work stress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54(2), 314-334. doi:10.1006/jvbe.1998.1661 google scholar
87. Walen, H. R., & Lachman, M. E. (2000). Social support and strain from partner, family, and friends: Costs and benefits for men and women in adulthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 17(1), 5-30. doi:10.1177/0265407500171001 google scholar
88. Yang, F.-C., Kao, R.-H., & Cho, C.-C. (2019). A multilevel study on the causal relationship in association network of work stress: Moderating effects of social support. Policing: An International Journal, 42(4), 624-639. doi:10.1108/PIJPSM-07-2018-0086 google scholar
89. Yousaf, S., Rasheed Muhammad, I., Hameed, Z., & Luqman, A. (2019). Occupational stress and its outcomes: The role of work-social support in the hospitality industry. Personnel Review, 49(3), 755-773. doi:10.1108/PR-11-2018-0478 google scholar
90. Zhang, B., Yan, X., Zhao, F., & Yuan, F. (2015). The relationship between perceived stress and adolescent depression: The roles of social support and gender. Social Indicators Research, 123(2), 501-518. doi:10.1007/s11205-014-0739-y google scholar
91. Zhang, L., Lin, Y., & Wan, F. (2015). Social support and job satisfaction: Elaborating the mediating role of work-family interface. Current Psychology, 34(4), 781v790. doi:10.1007/s12144-014-9290-x google scholar
92. Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley, G. K. (1988). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. Journal ofPersonality Assessment, 52(1), 30-41. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa5201_2 google scholar