Araştırma Makalesi
BibTex RIS Kaynak Göster

Weaponizing Cultural Heritage as a Military, Political and Strategic Tool

Yıl 2020, Cilt: 6 Sayı: 3, 988 - 1011, 28.09.2020
https://doi.org/10.21551/jhf.769785

Öz

Cultural Heritage, Memory and Identity, Armed Conflicts, New Wars.

The targeting and the destruction of cultural heritage in conflicts have become a global problem over the last century. US President Donald Trump threats to attack against Iran’s cultural heritage sites show that a new phase has been started. Since the 19th century, place and space related ideas considered together with ethnic nationalism. Cultural diversity manifested itself in the form of social inclusion or exclusion. The acceptance or rejection of individuals, groups and societies based on their ethnic, religious or national identities led communities to conflicts and wars. On the contrary, the development of the cultural heritage concept in last decades has strengthened the notion that the cultural heritage is not belongs to a group or a nation but it belongs to humanity and shared by all humankind.
Wars can be classified as military and political wars in the most general sense. Military wars cause damage or total destruction of cultural heritage in short period of time. Political wars usually take place at the diplomatic, psychological, technological or cultural levels and sometimes in the form of displacement of communities through various policies such as governmental, commercial and financial policies. Political wars affect cultural heritage at various levels, either physically or spiritually, but indirectly and in longer period.
Starting from the last quarter of the 19th century, reasons and methodologies of targeting historic buildings and cities began to change related with meanings that attributed to the cultural heritage. Recent conflicts such as Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan and former Yugoslavia showed that how cultural heritage could be weaponized to erase identity and memory. Conflicts erupt suddenly and repeat frequently in regions such as the Balkans, African and Middle Eastern countries. These countries ruled by great empires until the 20th century, but then authority-gaps occurred due to political, religious, ethnic turmoil. Armed conflicts or civil wars in those countries last longer than the international wars. Conflicts may continue as long as there are adequate resources or until one party achieve military victory. The legitimate use of force has no longer under the state monopoly. Those kind of internal conflicts, which creates an organized and widespread violence, goes beyond international laws and defined as new wars.
Attacks in new wars focused on to eradicate cultural images that represent identities and memories of societies and historic cities that bring diversities together. In this article, the issue of new wars is evaluated in the context of cultural heritage and investigated both with historic and recent examples. The answers to the questions, such as why and by which actions cultural heritage was targeted throughout history, why cultural heritage was targeted during recent conflicts, are ‘new wars’ really new in terms of cultural heritage, were sought.

Kaynakça

  • Appadurai, Arjun. "The Globalization of Archaeology and Heritage." The Journal of Social Archaeology 1, no. 1 (2001): 5-49.
  • Ashworth, Gregory J. War and the City. London/New York: Routledge, 1991.
  • Ashworth, Gregory J., and John E. Tunbridge. Dissonant Heritage: The Management of the Past as a Resource in Conflict. Toronto: John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
  • Baker, Heather D. " ‘I Burnt, Razed (and) Destroyed Those Cities’:The Assyrian Accounts of Deliberate Architectural Destruction." In Architecture and Armed Conflict: The Politics of Destruction, edited by JoAnne M. Mancini and Keith Bresnahan, 45-57. London: Routledge, 2015.
  • Bassiouni, M. Cherif. Study of the Battle and Siege of Sarajevo. (1994). https://phdn.org/archives/www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/comexpert/ANX/VI-01.htm.
  • Bernbeck, Reinhard, and Susan Pollock. "Ayodhya, Archaeology, and Identity." Current Anthropology 37, no. 1 (1996): S138-S42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2744239.
  • Bevan, Robert. The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War. London: Reaktion Books, 2016.
  • Boylan, Patrick J. "The Concept of Cultural Protection in Times of Armed Conflict: From the Crusades to the New Millennium." In Illicit Antiquities: The Theft of Culture and the Extinction of Archaeology, edited by Neil Brodie and Kathryn Walker Tubb. One World Archaeology. London: Routledge, 2002.
  • Bresnahan, Keith. "Remaking the Bastille: Architectural Destruction and Revolutionary Consciousness in France, 1789-94." In Architecture and Armed Conflict: The Politics of Destruction, edited by JoAnne M. Mancini and Keith Bresnahan, 58-71. London: Routledge, 2015.
  • Coward, Martin. "Urbicide Reconsidered." Theory and Event 10, no. 2 (2007). ———. Urbicide: The Politics of Urban Destruction. New York: Routledge, 2009.
  • Evans, Michael. "Lethal Genes: The Urban Military Imperative and Western Strategy in the Early Twenty-First Century." Journal of Strategic Studies 32, no. 4 (2009): 515–52.
  • Freedberg, David. Iconoclasts and Their Motives. Montclair, N.J.: Columbia University Academic Commons, 1985.
  • Gamboni, Dario. The Destruction of Art: Iconoclasm and Vandalism since the French Revolution. London: Reaktion Books, 1997.
  • Graham, Stephen. "Bulldozers and Bombs: The Latest Palestinian Israeli Conflict as Asymmetric Urbicide." Antipode 34, no. 4 (2002): 642-49. ———. "Constructing Urbicide by Bulldozer in the Occupied Territories." In Cities,War and Terrorism: Towards an Urban Geopolitics, edited by S. Graham, 192–213. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004. ———. "Lessons in Urbicide." New Left Review, no. 19 (2003): 63-77.
  • Griswold, Charles L. The Vietnam Veterans Memorial and the Washington Mall: Philosophical Thoughts on Political Iconography. Critical Issues in Public Art: Content, Context, and Controversy. Edited by Harriet F. Senie and Sally Webster. New York: HarperCollins, 1993.
  • Guha-Takurta, Tapati. "Archaeology and the Monument: An Embattled Site of History and Memory in Contemporary India." In Monuments and Memory, Made and Unmade, edited by Robert S. Nelson and Margaret Olin, 233-57: University of Chicago Press, 2003.
  • Herscher, Andrew. "Urbicide, Urbanism, and Urban Destruction in Kosovo." Theory and Event 10, no. 2 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1353/tae.2007.0062. ———. Violence Taking Place: The Architecture of the Kosovo Conflict. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2010.
  • Hills, Alice. "Continuity and Discontinuity: The Grammar of Urban Military Operations." In Cities,War and Terrorism: Towards an Urban Geopolitics, edited by S. Graham, 231–46. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2004.
  • Islam, Arshad. "The Backlash in Delhi: British Treatment of the Mughal Royal Family Following the Indian “Sepoy Mutiny” of 1857." Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 31, no. 2 (June 2011): 197-215.
  • Jankowski, Stanislaw. "Warsaw: Destruction, Secret Town Planning, 1939-44, and Postwar Reconstruction." In Rebuilding Europe's Bombed Cities, edited by Jeffry M. Diefendorf, 77-94. New York: Palgrave Macmillan 1990.
  • Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2012.
  • Kelsen, Hans. Principles of International Law. New Jersey: The Lawbook Exchange, 2003.
  • Knuth, Rebecca. Burning Books and Levelling Libraries: Extremist Violence and Cultural Destruction. Westport: Praeger, 2006.
  • Kramer, Alan. Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the First World War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
  • Kramer, Alan, and John Horne. German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial.: Yale University Press, 2001.
  • Lambourne, Nicola. War Damage in Western Europe: The Destruction of Historic Monuments During the Second World War. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2001.
  • Levy, Jack S., and William R. Thompson. The Arc of War:Origins, Escalation, and Transformation. Chikago-London: The University of Chicago Press, 2011. ———. Causes of War. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
  • Lowenthal, David. "Identity, Heritage, and History." In Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity, edited by John R. Gillis. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994.
  • Marco, Lou Di. "Attacking the Heart and Guts: Urban Operations through the Ages." In Block by Block: The Challenges of Urban Operations, edited by William G. Robertson and Lawrance A. Yates, 1-28. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: US Army Command and General Staf College Press, 2003.
  • Massey, Doreen. "A Global Sense of Place." Marxism Today (1991): 24-29. http://www.unz.org/Pub/MarxismToday-1991jun-00024.
  • McNeill, W. H. Dünya Tarihi. Translated by A. Şenel. Ankara: İmge Kitabevi Yayınları, 2002.
  • Münkler, Herfried. Yeni Savaşlar. Translated by Zehra Aksu Yılmazer. İstanbul: İletişim Yayıncılık, 2010.
  • Nahlik, Stanislaw E. "Protection of Cultural Property." In International Dimensions of Humanitarian Law, 203–15. Paris: UNESCO: UNESCO, 1988.
  • Nochlin, Linda. The Body in Pieces: The Fragment as a Metaphor of Modernity. London: Thames & Hudson, 1994.
  • Noyes, James. The Politics of Iconoclasm: Religion, Violence and the Culture of Image-Breaking in Christianity and Islam. New York: I.B Tauris, 2013.
  • Rajagopalan, Mrinalini. "1932: Jama Masjid." In Building Histories : The Archival and Affective Lives of Five Monuments in Modern Delhi, 87-118. Chicago ; London: The University of Chicago Press, 2016.
  • Rothfield, Lawrence. Antiquities under Siege: Cultural Heritage Protection after the Iraq War. Lanham: AltaMira Press, 2008.
  • Ryden, Kent C. Mapping the Invisible Landscape: Folklore, Writing, and the Sense of Place. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1993.
  • Schildgen, Brenda Deen. Heritage or Heresy: Preservation and Destruction of Religious Art and Architecture in Europe. New York: Palgrave Macmillian, 2008.
  • Schwenkel, Christina. "Architecture and Dwelling in the ‘War of Destruction’ in Vietnam." In Architecture and Armed Conflict: The Politics of Destruction, edited by JoAnne M. Mancini and Keith Bresnahan, 11-26. London: Routledge, 2015.
  • Shaw, Martin. "New Wars of the City: Relationships of “Urbicide” and “Genocide”." In Cities,War and Terrorism: Towards an Urban Geopolitics, edited by Stephen Graham, 141–53. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2004.
  • Sørensen, Marie Louise Stig, and Dacia Viejo-Rose. "Introduction: The Impact of Conflict on Cultural Heritage: A Biographical Lens.". In War and Cultural Heritage: Biographies of Place, edited by Marie Louise Stig Sørensen and Dacia Viejo-Rose, 1-17. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
  • Stanley-Price, Nicholas. "The Thread of Continuity: Cultural Heritage in Post-War Recovery." Paper presented at the Cultural Heritage in Postwar Recovery, Rome, 2005.
  • Teijgeler, René. "Preserving Cultural Heritage in Times of Conflict." In Preservation Management for Libraries, Archives and Museums, edited by G. Gorman and S. Shep, 133-65: Facet, 2006.
  • Toman, Jiri. The Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict. Aldershot/Paris: Dartmouth/UNESCO, 1996.
  • Tung, Anthony M. Preserving the World’s Great Cities: The Destruction and Renewal of the Historic Metropolis. New York: Clarkson Potter, 2001.
  • UN. Israel’s Settlements Have No Legal Validity, Constitute Flagrant Violation of International Law, Security Council Reaffirms. (2016). https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/sc12657.doc.htm.
  • Viejo-Rose, Dacia. "Conflict and the Deliberate Destruction of Cultural Heritage." In Conflicts and Tensions edited by H. A. Isar, 102–18. London: Sage Publications, 2008.
  • Wallace, Iain, and David B Knight. "Societies in Space and Place." In Earthly Goods: Environmental Change and Social Justice, edited by Fen Osler Hampson and Judith Reppy, 75-95. Ithaca,NY: Cornell University Press, 1996.
  • Weinstein, Jeremy. Inside Rebellion: The Politics of Insurgent Violence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  • White, Cheryl, and Thomas Livoti. "Preserving Cultural Heritage in Time of Conflict: A Tool for Counterinsurgency." In Cultural Heritage in the Crosshairs: Protecting Cultural Property During Conflict, edited by Joris D. Kila and James A. Zeidler, 195-218. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2013.
  • Wright, Quincy. "Francis Lieber’s Code for Land Warfare." In The Vietnam War and International Law (4 Vols)1968-1976, edited by R.A. Falk, 30-109. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1971.

Askeri, Politik ve Stratejik bir Araç Olarak Kültürel Mirası Silahlaştırmak

Yıl 2020, Cilt: 6 Sayı: 3, 988 - 1011, 28.09.2020
https://doi.org/10.21551/jhf.769785

Öz

Kültürel mirası hedef alan çatışmalar küresel bir sorun haline gelmiştir. ABD Başkanı Donald Trump’ın İran’ı kültürel miras alanlarını vurmakla tehditleri yeni bir aşamaya gelindiğini göstermiştir. On dokuzuncu yüzyıldan itibaren yerle ve mekânla ilişkili fikirler etnik ulusalcılıkla birlikte düşünülmüştür. Kültürel çeşitlilik toplumsal açıdan kabul etme ya da reddetme şeklinde tezahür etmiş ve çatışmalara neden olmuştur. Buna karşılık kültür mirasını koruma anlayışının son yıllardaki gelişimiyle kültür mirasının özel olmaktan çıkarak, bütün insanlığa ait olduğu ve herkesin ortak mirası olduğu fikirlerini güçlendirmiştir.
Savaşlar askeri ve politik savaşlar olarak tasnif edilebilir. Askeri savaşlar kültürel mirasın kısa sürede büyük hasarlar almasına neden olmaktadır. Politik savaşlar genellikle psikolojik, diplomatik, teknolojik ya da kültürel düzeyde gerçekleşmekte; bazen de ticari, finansal, hükümet politikaları gibi çeşitli politikalarla toplulukları yerinden etme şeklinde gerçekleşmektedir. Kültürel mirası çeşitli düzeylerde fiziksel ya da ruhsal olarak fakat dolaylı şekilde ve daha uzun bir zaman dilimi içeresinde etkileyebilmektedir.
On dokuzuncu yüzyılın son çeyreğinden başlayarak kültürel miras yapılarını ve tarihi kentleri hedef alma gerekçeleri ve yöntemleri kültürel mirasa yüklenen anlamlarla ilişkili olarak değişmeye başlamıştır. Yakın tarihli çatışmalar kültürel mirasın kimlik ve belleği silmek üzere nasıl silahlaştırılabileceğini göstermektedir.
Yirminci yüzyıla kadar büyük imparatorluklar tarafından yönetilen, egemen güçlerin sömürge mücadelelerinin ardından otorite boşluğunun ortaya çıktığı Balkanlar, Afrika, Ortadoğu ülkeleri gibi bölgelerde çatışmalar bir anda patlar ve sıklıkla tekrar eder. Devletlerarası savaşlara göre daha uzun sürer. Çatışmalar, yeterli kaynaklar olduğu sürece ve taraflardan biri ötekine üstünlük sağlayana kadar devam eder. Güç kullanımı devlet tekelinden çıkmıştır. Örgütlü ve yaygın şiddet ortamı yaratan bu türden iç karışıklıklar ya da çatışmalar uluslararası hukuk normlarının dışına çıkmaktadır.
Yeni savaşlarda saldırılar toplumların kimlik ve belleğini temsil eden kültürel imgelerini yok etmeye ya da çeşitlilikleri bir araya getiren tarihi kentlere odaklanmıştır. Bu makalede yeni savaşlar konusu kültürel miras bakımından değerlendirilmiştir. Silahlı çatışmalarda ya da savaşlarda kültürel mirasın neden hedef alındığı tarihsel ve yakın örneklerle incelenmiştir. Bu bağlamda kültürel miras için yeni savaşlar gerçekten yeni midir; kültürel mirasın ve kentlerin geçmişteki ve günümüzdeki savaşlardaki/çatışmalardaki rolü ne olmuştur; kültürel miras hangi eylemlerle ve neden hedef alınmıştır gibi sorulara cevap aranmaktadır.

Kaynakça

  • Appadurai, Arjun. "The Globalization of Archaeology and Heritage." The Journal of Social Archaeology 1, no. 1 (2001): 5-49.
  • Ashworth, Gregory J. War and the City. London/New York: Routledge, 1991.
  • Ashworth, Gregory J., and John E. Tunbridge. Dissonant Heritage: The Management of the Past as a Resource in Conflict. Toronto: John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
  • Baker, Heather D. " ‘I Burnt, Razed (and) Destroyed Those Cities’:The Assyrian Accounts of Deliberate Architectural Destruction." In Architecture and Armed Conflict: The Politics of Destruction, edited by JoAnne M. Mancini and Keith Bresnahan, 45-57. London: Routledge, 2015.
  • Bassiouni, M. Cherif. Study of the Battle and Siege of Sarajevo. (1994). https://phdn.org/archives/www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/comexpert/ANX/VI-01.htm.
  • Bernbeck, Reinhard, and Susan Pollock. "Ayodhya, Archaeology, and Identity." Current Anthropology 37, no. 1 (1996): S138-S42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2744239.
  • Bevan, Robert. The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War. London: Reaktion Books, 2016.
  • Boylan, Patrick J. "The Concept of Cultural Protection in Times of Armed Conflict: From the Crusades to the New Millennium." In Illicit Antiquities: The Theft of Culture and the Extinction of Archaeology, edited by Neil Brodie and Kathryn Walker Tubb. One World Archaeology. London: Routledge, 2002.
  • Bresnahan, Keith. "Remaking the Bastille: Architectural Destruction and Revolutionary Consciousness in France, 1789-94." In Architecture and Armed Conflict: The Politics of Destruction, edited by JoAnne M. Mancini and Keith Bresnahan, 58-71. London: Routledge, 2015.
  • Coward, Martin. "Urbicide Reconsidered." Theory and Event 10, no. 2 (2007). ———. Urbicide: The Politics of Urban Destruction. New York: Routledge, 2009.
  • Evans, Michael. "Lethal Genes: The Urban Military Imperative and Western Strategy in the Early Twenty-First Century." Journal of Strategic Studies 32, no. 4 (2009): 515–52.
  • Freedberg, David. Iconoclasts and Their Motives. Montclair, N.J.: Columbia University Academic Commons, 1985.
  • Gamboni, Dario. The Destruction of Art: Iconoclasm and Vandalism since the French Revolution. London: Reaktion Books, 1997.
  • Graham, Stephen. "Bulldozers and Bombs: The Latest Palestinian Israeli Conflict as Asymmetric Urbicide." Antipode 34, no. 4 (2002): 642-49. ———. "Constructing Urbicide by Bulldozer in the Occupied Territories." In Cities,War and Terrorism: Towards an Urban Geopolitics, edited by S. Graham, 192–213. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004. ———. "Lessons in Urbicide." New Left Review, no. 19 (2003): 63-77.
  • Griswold, Charles L. The Vietnam Veterans Memorial and the Washington Mall: Philosophical Thoughts on Political Iconography. Critical Issues in Public Art: Content, Context, and Controversy. Edited by Harriet F. Senie and Sally Webster. New York: HarperCollins, 1993.
  • Guha-Takurta, Tapati. "Archaeology and the Monument: An Embattled Site of History and Memory in Contemporary India." In Monuments and Memory, Made and Unmade, edited by Robert S. Nelson and Margaret Olin, 233-57: University of Chicago Press, 2003.
  • Herscher, Andrew. "Urbicide, Urbanism, and Urban Destruction in Kosovo." Theory and Event 10, no. 2 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1353/tae.2007.0062. ———. Violence Taking Place: The Architecture of the Kosovo Conflict. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2010.
  • Hills, Alice. "Continuity and Discontinuity: The Grammar of Urban Military Operations." In Cities,War and Terrorism: Towards an Urban Geopolitics, edited by S. Graham, 231–46. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2004.
  • Islam, Arshad. "The Backlash in Delhi: British Treatment of the Mughal Royal Family Following the Indian “Sepoy Mutiny” of 1857." Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 31, no. 2 (June 2011): 197-215.
  • Jankowski, Stanislaw. "Warsaw: Destruction, Secret Town Planning, 1939-44, and Postwar Reconstruction." In Rebuilding Europe's Bombed Cities, edited by Jeffry M. Diefendorf, 77-94. New York: Palgrave Macmillan 1990.
  • Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2012.
  • Kelsen, Hans. Principles of International Law. New Jersey: The Lawbook Exchange, 2003.
  • Knuth, Rebecca. Burning Books and Levelling Libraries: Extremist Violence and Cultural Destruction. Westport: Praeger, 2006.
  • Kramer, Alan. Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the First World War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
  • Kramer, Alan, and John Horne. German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial.: Yale University Press, 2001.
  • Lambourne, Nicola. War Damage in Western Europe: The Destruction of Historic Monuments During the Second World War. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2001.
  • Levy, Jack S., and William R. Thompson. The Arc of War:Origins, Escalation, and Transformation. Chikago-London: The University of Chicago Press, 2011. ———. Causes of War. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
  • Lowenthal, David. "Identity, Heritage, and History." In Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity, edited by John R. Gillis. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994.
  • Marco, Lou Di. "Attacking the Heart and Guts: Urban Operations through the Ages." In Block by Block: The Challenges of Urban Operations, edited by William G. Robertson and Lawrance A. Yates, 1-28. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: US Army Command and General Staf College Press, 2003.
  • Massey, Doreen. "A Global Sense of Place." Marxism Today (1991): 24-29. http://www.unz.org/Pub/MarxismToday-1991jun-00024.
  • McNeill, W. H. Dünya Tarihi. Translated by A. Şenel. Ankara: İmge Kitabevi Yayınları, 2002.
  • Münkler, Herfried. Yeni Savaşlar. Translated by Zehra Aksu Yılmazer. İstanbul: İletişim Yayıncılık, 2010.
  • Nahlik, Stanislaw E. "Protection of Cultural Property." In International Dimensions of Humanitarian Law, 203–15. Paris: UNESCO: UNESCO, 1988.
  • Nochlin, Linda. The Body in Pieces: The Fragment as a Metaphor of Modernity. London: Thames & Hudson, 1994.
  • Noyes, James. The Politics of Iconoclasm: Religion, Violence and the Culture of Image-Breaking in Christianity and Islam. New York: I.B Tauris, 2013.
  • Rajagopalan, Mrinalini. "1932: Jama Masjid." In Building Histories : The Archival and Affective Lives of Five Monuments in Modern Delhi, 87-118. Chicago ; London: The University of Chicago Press, 2016.
  • Rothfield, Lawrence. Antiquities under Siege: Cultural Heritage Protection after the Iraq War. Lanham: AltaMira Press, 2008.
  • Ryden, Kent C. Mapping the Invisible Landscape: Folklore, Writing, and the Sense of Place. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1993.
  • Schildgen, Brenda Deen. Heritage or Heresy: Preservation and Destruction of Religious Art and Architecture in Europe. New York: Palgrave Macmillian, 2008.
  • Schwenkel, Christina. "Architecture and Dwelling in the ‘War of Destruction’ in Vietnam." In Architecture and Armed Conflict: The Politics of Destruction, edited by JoAnne M. Mancini and Keith Bresnahan, 11-26. London: Routledge, 2015.
  • Shaw, Martin. "New Wars of the City: Relationships of “Urbicide” and “Genocide”." In Cities,War and Terrorism: Towards an Urban Geopolitics, edited by Stephen Graham, 141–53. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2004.
  • Sørensen, Marie Louise Stig, and Dacia Viejo-Rose. "Introduction: The Impact of Conflict on Cultural Heritage: A Biographical Lens.". In War and Cultural Heritage: Biographies of Place, edited by Marie Louise Stig Sørensen and Dacia Viejo-Rose, 1-17. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
  • Stanley-Price, Nicholas. "The Thread of Continuity: Cultural Heritage in Post-War Recovery." Paper presented at the Cultural Heritage in Postwar Recovery, Rome, 2005.
  • Teijgeler, René. "Preserving Cultural Heritage in Times of Conflict." In Preservation Management for Libraries, Archives and Museums, edited by G. Gorman and S. Shep, 133-65: Facet, 2006.
  • Toman, Jiri. The Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict. Aldershot/Paris: Dartmouth/UNESCO, 1996.
  • Tung, Anthony M. Preserving the World’s Great Cities: The Destruction and Renewal of the Historic Metropolis. New York: Clarkson Potter, 2001.
  • UN. Israel’s Settlements Have No Legal Validity, Constitute Flagrant Violation of International Law, Security Council Reaffirms. (2016). https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/sc12657.doc.htm.
  • Viejo-Rose, Dacia. "Conflict and the Deliberate Destruction of Cultural Heritage." In Conflicts and Tensions edited by H. A. Isar, 102–18. London: Sage Publications, 2008.
  • Wallace, Iain, and David B Knight. "Societies in Space and Place." In Earthly Goods: Environmental Change and Social Justice, edited by Fen Osler Hampson and Judith Reppy, 75-95. Ithaca,NY: Cornell University Press, 1996.
  • Weinstein, Jeremy. Inside Rebellion: The Politics of Insurgent Violence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  • White, Cheryl, and Thomas Livoti. "Preserving Cultural Heritage in Time of Conflict: A Tool for Counterinsurgency." In Cultural Heritage in the Crosshairs: Protecting Cultural Property During Conflict, edited by Joris D. Kila and James A. Zeidler, 195-218. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2013.
  • Wright, Quincy. "Francis Lieber’s Code for Land Warfare." In The Vietnam War and International Law (4 Vols)1968-1976, edited by R.A. Falk, 30-109. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1971.
Toplam 52 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Bilal Bilgili 0000-0001-8572-2755

Gülsün Tanyeli 0000-0002-4170-8596

Yayımlanma Tarihi 28 Eylül 2020
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2020 Cilt: 6 Sayı: 3

Kaynak Göster

Chicago Bilgili, Bilal, ve Gülsün Tanyeli. “Askeri, Politik Ve Stratejik Bir Araç Olarak Kültürel Mirası Silahlaştırmak”. Tarih Ve Gelecek Dergisi 6, sy. 3 (Eylül 2020): 988-1011. https://doi.org/10.21551/jhf.769785.

Tarih ve Gelecek (Journal of History and Future) Uluslararası Hakemli Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi

DRJIResearchBib,  AcarindexERIH PLUSASOS IndexSindex, SOBİADTürk Eğitim İndeksi, Open Access Library (oalib)Eurasian Scientific Journal Index, Google ScholarAcademic Keys, Journal FactorIndex Copernicus, CiteFactoridealonlineSciLit, Road, CrosreffJournal TOC, MAKTABA, INTERNATIONAL ISSN, CORE, PAPERITY, INGENTA, OPENAIRE

Creative Commons License
16275 Tarih ve Gelecek Dergisi Açık Erişim politikasını benimsemektedir.