The Relationship between Communication Strategies and Noticing Function of Output Hypothesis in Teacher Talk

Abstract

Purpose of the Study: The present study, building upon communication strategies research and noticing function of output hypothesis, examines the relationship between these two issues in teacher talk.
Method: Five Iranian EFL teachers along with the students in their classes participated in this study. To collect the required data for this study, two steps were taken. First, the researcher observed the classrooms as a non-participant and made audio-recordings from three lessons of each teacher. Second, a single semi-structured interview session was conducted with each teacher.
Results: The results showed that whether the teacher notices his linguistic gaps and uses communication strategies to deal with his linguistic problems but this noticing does not lead to any reaction on the part of the teacher; or the communication strategy is not noticed by the teacher that is in apparent contrast to Swain's noticing function of output hypothesis.

Keywords

• Communication strategies, Output hypothesis, Noticing function, Iranian EFL teachers, Linguistic gaps

Kaynakça

1. Adamson, J. (2004). Unpacking teacher beliefs through semi-structured interviewing: insights into the interviewing process in context. Journal of Language and Learning, 2(2), 114-128.
2. Anani Sarab, M. R. (2004). The study of communication strategies in teacher talk. Iranian Journal of Applied linguistics, 7(2), 1-44.
3. Bialystok, E. (1983). Some factors in the selection and implementation of communication strategies. In C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp. 100-118). London: Longman.
4. Bialystok, E. (1990). Communication strategies: A psychological analysis of second language use. Oxford: Blackwell.
5. Corder, S. P. (1983). Strategies of communication. In C. Faerch and G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp. 15-19). London: Longman.
6. Cullen, R. (1998). Teacher talk and the classroom context. ELT Journal, 52(3), 179-187.
7. Dechert, H. (1983). How a story is done in a second language. In C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp. 175-195). London: Longman.
8. Dornyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

9. Dornyei, Z., & Scott, M. L. (1997). Communication strategies in a second language: Definitions and taxonomies. Language Learning, 47(1), 173-209.
10. Faerch, C., & Kasper, G. (Eds.). (1983a). Strategies in interlanguage communication. London: Longman.
11. Faerch, C. & Kasper, G. (1983b). Plans and strategies in foreign language communication. In C. Faerch and G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp. 20-60). London: Longman.
12. Farrokhi, F. (2006). A practical step towards combining focus on form and focus on meaning. Journal of Faculty of Letters and Humanities of Tabriz University, 49 (198), 99-148.
13. Fernandez Dobao, A. M. & Palacios Martinez, I. M. (2007). Negotiating meaning in interaction between English and Spanish speakers via communication strategies. Atlantis, 29(1), 87-105.
14. Firth, A. & Wagner, J. (1996). On discourse, communication, and (some) fundamental concepts in SLA. Paper presented at the AILA conference (Scientific Commission on Discourse Analysis), Finland.
15. Haastrup, K., & Phillipson, R. (1983). Achievement strategies in learner/native speaker interaction. In C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp. 140-158). London: Longman.
16. Iwashita, N. (2001). The effect of learner proficiency on interactional moves and modified output in nonnative-nonnative interaction in Japanese as a foreign language. System, 29, 267–287.
17. Izumi, S. (2002). Output, input enhancement, and the noticing hypothesis: an experimental study on ESL relativization. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24(4), 541– 577.
18. Izumi, S. & Bigelow, M. (2000). Does output promote noticing and second language acquisition? TESOL Quarterly, 34, 239–278.
19. Izumi, S., Bigelow, M., Fujiwara, M. & Fearnow, S. (1999). Testing the output hypothesis: Effects of output on noticing and second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 421–452.
20. Jourdain, S. (2000). A native-like ability to circumlocute. The Modern Language Journal, 84(2), 185-195.
21. Kellerman, E. (1991). Compensatory strategies in second language research: A critique, a revision, and some (non-)implications for the classroom. In R. Phillipson, E. Kellerman, L. Selinker, M. Sharwood Smith, & M. Swain (Eds.), Foreign/second language pedagogy research (pp. 142-161). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
22. Kellerman, E. & Bialystok, E. (1997). On psychological plausibility in the study of communication strategies. In G. Kasper and E. Kellerman (Eds.), Communication strategies: psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives (pp. 31-48). New York: Longman.
23. Littlemore, J. (2003). The communicative effectiveness of different types of communication strategy. System, 31, 331-347.
24. Maleki, A. (2007). Teachability of communication strategies: an Iranian experience. System, 35, 1-12.
25. Nakatani, Y. (2006). Developing an oral communication strategy inventory. The Modern Language Journal, 90(2), 151-168.
26. Nakatani, Y. and Goh, C. (2007). A review of oral communication strategies: focus on interactionist and psycholinguistic perspectives. In A. D. Cohen and E. Macaro (Eds.), Language learner strategies (pp. 207-227). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
27. Paribakht, T. (1985). Strategic competence and language proficiency. Applied Linguistics, 6, 132-146.
28. Pica, T., Lincoln-Porter, F., Paninos, D. & Linnell, J. (1996). Language learners’ interaction: how does it address the input, output and feedback needs of L2 learners? TESOL Quarterly, 30(1), 59–84.
29. Rampton, B. (1997). A sociolinguistic perspective on L2 communication strategies. In G. Kasper and E. Kellerman (Eds.), communication strategies: psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives (pp. 279-303). New York: Longman.
30. Raupach, M. (1983). Analysis and evaluation of communication strategies. In C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp. 199-209). London: Longman.
31. Seedhouse, P. (1996). Classroom interaction: possibilities and impossibilities. ELT Journal, 50, 16–24.
32. Seedhouse, P. (1997a). The case of the missing "no": the relationship between pedagogy and interaction. Language Learning, 47, 547-83.
33. Seedhouse, P. (1997b). Combining form and meaning. ELT Journal, 51(4), 336-344.
34. Seedhouse, P. (1999). The relationship between context and the organization of repair in the L2 classroom. IRAL, 37(1), 59-80.
35. Seedhouse, P. (2004). The interactional architecture of the second language classroom: A conversational analysis perspective. Oxford: Blackwell.
36. Shehadeh, A. (1999). Non-native speakers’ production of modified comprehensible output and second language learning. Language Learning, 49, 627–675.
37. Shehadeh, A. (2001). Self- and other-initiated modified output during task-based interaction. TESOL Quarterly, 35(3), 433–457.
38. Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass and C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235–253). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
39. Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook & B. Seidlhofer (Eds.), Principle and practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honor of H. G. Widdowson (pp. 125–144). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
40. Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (1995). Problems in output and the cognitive processes they generate: a step toward second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 16, 371– 391.
41. Tarone, E. (1977). Conscious communication strategies in interlanguage: A progress report. In H. D. Brown, C. A. Yorio & R. C. Crymes (Eds.), On TESOL 77 (pp. 194-203). Washington, DC: TESOL.
42. Tarone, E. (1983). Some thoughts on the notion of ‘communication strategy’. In C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp. 61-74). London: Longman.
43. Tarone, E., Cohen, A. D. & Dumas, G. (1976). A closer look at some interlanguage terminology: a framework for communication strategies. In C. Faerch and G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp. 4-14). London: Longman.
44. Van den Branden, K. (1997). Effects of negotiation on language learners’ output. Language Learning, 47, 589–636.
45. Varadi, T. (1973). Strategies of target language learner communication: Message adjustment. Paper presented at the 6th Conference of the Rumanian-English Linguistics Project, Timisoara.
46. Varadi, T. (1983). Strategies of target language learner communication: Message adjustment. In C. Faerch and G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp. 79-99). London: Longman.
47. Wagner, J. (1983). Dann du tagen eineeeee – weisse Platte: an analysis of interlanguage communication in instructions. In C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp. 159-174). London: Longman.
48. Wagner, J. and Firth, A. (1997). Communication Strategies at Work. In G. Kasper and E. Kellerman (Eds.), Communication strategies: psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives (pp. 323-344). New York: Longman.
49. Walsh, S. (2002). Construction or obstruction: teacher talk and learner involvement in the EFL classroom. Language Teaching Research, 6, 3-23.
50. Walsh, S. (2006). Investigating classroom discourse. Cambridge: Routledge.
51. Willems, G. (1987). Communication strategies and their significance in foreign language teaching. System, 15(3), 351-364.
52. Yule, G. & Tarone, E. (1991). The other side of the page: Integrating the study of communication strategies and negotiated input in SLA. In R. Phillipson, E. Kellerman, L. Selinker, M. Sharwood Smith, & M. Swain (Eds.), Foreign/second language pedagogy research (pp. 142-161). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
53. Yule, G. & Tarone, E. (1997). Investigating communication strategies in L2 reference: pros and cons. In G. Kasper and E. Kellerman (Eds.), Communication strategies: psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives (pp. 17-30). New York: Longman.