The effectiveness of L1 use in promoting oral production in L2 across different proficiency levels

Abstract

The current study examines the impact of L1 use on EFL learners’ L2 speaking skills as well as their perceptions of L1 use in fostering oral production in L2. The study was conducted for 10 weeks with 60 low intermediate and the high intermediate students at a high school of science in Turkey in 2018-2019 spring term. In each group, half of the students were designated as the experimental group and the other half as the control group. The experimental groups in each level group were exposed to a 10-week (40 hours of teaching) of L1 use in order to promote speaking skills in L2 while the control groups were taught through communicative language approach. In the study, the explanatory sequential mixed methods design was utilized. The analysis of a Paired-Sample t-test indicated that L1 use played a pivotal role in ameliorating students’ L2 speaking skills. Semi-structured interviews revealed that students favoured L1 use through which they could attenuate cognitive load and experience stress-free classroom environment in order to improve speaking skills in L2. Lastly, the students exposed to judicious and systematic L1 use outperformed the students exposed to only L2 at low intermediate and high intermediate level as regards boosting oral production in L2 and developing students’ positive perception of L2.Pedagogical implications are discussed.

Keywords

• L1 use; oral production in L2; students’ perception of L2

Kaynakça

1. Anderson, N. J. (1991). Individual differences in strategy use in second language reading and testing. The Modern Language Journal, 75(4), 460-472.
2. Atkinson, D. (1987). The mother tongue in the classroom: A neglected resource?. ELT journal, 41(4), 241-247.
3. Atkinson, D. (1993). Teaching monolingual classes (Vol. 12). London: Longman.
4. Antón, M., & DiCamilla, F. (1998). Socio-cognitive functions of L1 collaborative interaction in the L2 classroom. Canadian modern language review, 54(3), 314-342.
5. Bardovi‐Harlig, K., & Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Do language learners recognize pragmatic violations? Pragmatic versus grammatical awareness in instructed L2 learning. Tesol Quarterly, 32(2), 233-259.
6. Benson, C. (2002). Transfer/Cross‐linguistic influence. ELT journal, 56(1), 68-70.
7. Bergsleighner, J. M. (2002). Grammar and interaction in the EFL classroom: A sociocultural study. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis.
8. Block, E. (1986). The comprehension strategies of second language readers. Tesol Quarterly, 20(3), 463-494.

9. Brooks, F. B., & Donato, R. (1994). Vygotskyan approaches to understanding foreign language learner discourse during communicative tasks. Hispania,77, 262-274.
10. Bruner, J. S. (1983). Child's talk: Learning to use Language. New York.
11. Butzkamm, W., & Caldwell, J. A. (2009). The bilingual reform: A paradigm shift in foreign language teaching. Narr Francke Attempto Verlag
12. Carson, E., & Kashihara, H. (2012). Using the L1 in the L2 classroom: The students speak. The Language Teacher, 36(4), 41-48.
13. Çelik, Ş. S., & Aydın, S. (2018). A review of research on the use of native language in EFL classes. Literacy, 4(2), 1-14.
14. Chang, C. Y. (2009). Teacher’s use of students’ L1 in an EFL classroom. (Unpublished master’s thesis). National Cheung Kang University, Taiwan.
15. Cipriani, F. (2001). Oral participation strategies in the foreign language classrooms: an ethnographic account (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis.
16. Collentine, J., & Freed, B. F. (2004). Learning context and its effects on second language acquisition: Introduction. Studies in second language acquisition, 26(2), 153-171.
17. Collins, K. M. T., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Sutton, I. L. (2006). A model incorporating the rationale and purpose for conducting mixed methods research in special education and beyond. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 4(1), 67-100.
18. Cook, V. (2001). Using the First Language in the Classroom. The Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue candienne des langues vivantes, 57(3), 402-423.
19. Cook, G. (2010). Translation in language teaching: An argument for reassessment. Oxford University Press.
20. Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methodologies: Oxford University Press Oxford.
21. Edstrom, A. (2006). L1 use in the L2 classroom: One teacher's self-evaluation. Canadian Modern Language Review, 63(2), 275-292.
22. Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
23. Ferguson, G. (2003). Classroom code-switching in post-colonial contexts: Functions, attitudes and policies. AILA Review, 16(1), 38-51.
24. Firth, A., & Wagner, J. (1997). On discourse, communication, and (some) fundamental concepts in SLA research. The Modern Language Journal, 81(3), 285-300.
25. Galali, A., & Cinkara, E. (2017). The Use of L1 in English as a Foreign Language Classes: Insights from Iraqi Tertiary Level Students. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 8(5), 54-64.
26. Gass, S. M., & Varonis, E. M. (1994). Input, interaction, and second language production. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16(3), 283–302.
27. Goodwin, A. L. (2017). Who is in the classroom now? Teacher preparation and the education of immigrant children. Educational Studies, 53(5), 433-449.
28. Grim, F. (2010). L1 in the L2 Classroom at the Secondary and College Levels: A Comparison of Functions and Use by Teachers. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 7(2), 193-209.
29. Hall, G., & Cook, G. (2014). Own language use in ELT: exploring global practices and attitudes. Language Issues: The ESOL Journal, 25(1), 35-43.
30. Hatch, E. (1978). Acquisition of syntax in a second language. In J. Richards (Eds.), Understanding second and foreign language learning, (pp.34-70). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
31. Housen, A., Schoonjans, E., Janssens, S., Welcomme, A., Schoonheere, E., & Pierrard, M. (2011). Conceptualizing and measuring the impact of contextual factors in instructed SLA–the role of language prominence. IRAL-International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 49(2), 83-112.
32. Howatt, A. P. R., & Widdowson, H. G. (2004). A history of ELT. Oxford University Press.
33. Hymes, D. (1972). On Communicative Competence. In J. Pride, & J. Holmes, Sociolinguistics. Selected Readings. (pp. 269-293). Harmondsworth: Penguin.
34. Johnson, R. B., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Turner, L. A. (2007). Toward a definition of mixed methods research. Journal of mixed methods research, 1(2), 112-133.
35. Kaplan, R. B. (1966). Cultural thought patterns in intercultural education. Language Learning, 16(1-2), 1–20.
36. Kelly, N., & Bruen, J. (2015). Translation as a pedagogical tool in the foreign language classroom: A qualitative study of attitudes and behaviours. Language Teaching Research, 19(2), 150-168.
37. Kern, R. G. (1994). The role of mental translation in second language reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16(4), 441-461.
38. Kondracki, N. L., & Wellman, N. S. (2002). Content analysis: Review of methods and their applications in nutrition education. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 34(4), 224-230
39. Kovačić, A., & Kirinić, V. (2011). To Use or Not to Use: First Language in Tertiary Instruction of‎ English as a Foreign Language.‎ In Sarajevo: The First International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, Sarajevo.
40. Krashen, S.D. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. University of Southern California.
41. Krashen, S.D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.
42. Lee, J. H. (2016). Exploring non-native English-speaking teachers’ beliefs about the monolingual approach: Differences between pre-service and in-service Korean teachers of English. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 37(8), 759-773.
43. Littlewood, W. & Yu, B. (2009). First language and target language in the foreign language classroom. Language Teaching, 44(1), 64-77.
44. Lo, Y. Y. (2015). How much L1 is too much? Teachers' language use in response to students’ abilities and classroom interaction in Content and Language Integrated Learning. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 18(3), 270-288.
45. Long, M. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. Handbook of second language acquisition. San Diego, CA: Academic.
46. Macaro, E. (2001). Analysing student teachers’ codeswitching in foreign language classrooms: Theories and decision making. The Modern Language Journal, 85(4), 531-548.
47. Mahmoudi, L., & Amirkhiz, S. Y. Y. (2011). The Use of Persian in the EFL Classroom--The Case of English Teaching and Learning at Pre-University Level in Iran. English Language Teaching, 4(1), 135-140.
48. Mohebbi, H., & Alavi, S. M. (2014). Teachers’ first language use in second language learning classroom context: A Questionnaire-based study. Bellaterra: Journal of Teaching and Learning Language and Literature, 7(4), 57-73.
49. Nation, P. (2003). The role of the first language in foreign language learning. Asian EFL journal, 5(2), 1-8.
50. Norman, J. (2008). Benefits and drawbacks to L1 use in the L2 classroom. In K. Bradford Watts, T. Muller, & M. Swanson (Eds.), JALT2007 Conference Proceedings. Tokyo: JALT.
51. O’Grady, W. (2003). The radical middle: Nativism without universal grammar. In C. Doughty & M. H.Long (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition, (pp.43-62). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
52. O'Malley, J. M. & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge university press.
53. Ortega, L. (2014). Understanding second language acquisition. Routledge.
54. Park, E. S. (2013). Learner-generated noticing behavior by novice learners: Tracing the effects of learners’ L1 on their emerging L2. Applied linguistics, 34(1), 74-98.
55. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Thousand Oaks. Cal.: Sage Publications.
56. Pavón Vázquez, V., & Ramos Ordóñez, M. D. C. (2019). Describing the use of the L1 in CLIL: an analysis of L1 communication strategies in classroom interaction. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 22(1), 35-48.
57. Pica, T. (1994). Research on negotiation: What does it reveal about second‐language learning conditions, processes, and outcomes?. Language learning, 44(3), 493-527.
58. Pienemann, M. (1998). Language processing and second language development: Processability theory (Vol. 15). John Benjamins Publishing.
59. Qi, D. S. (1998). An inquiry into language-switching in second language composing processes. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 54(3), 413–435.
60. Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2014). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge university press.
61. Russell, J., & Spada, N. (2006). The effectiveness of corrective feedback for the acquisition of L2 grammar. Synthesizing research on language learning and teaching, 13, 133-164.
62. Sali, P. (2014). An analysis of the teachers' use of L1 in Turkish EFL classrooms. System, 42, 308-318.
63. Sampson, A. (2012). Learner code-switching versus English only. ELT journal, 66(3), 293-303.
64. Savignon, S. J. (1983). Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice. Canadian Modern Language Review, 40(3), 464–465
65. Scott, V. M., & FUENTE, M. J. D. L. (2008). What's the problem? L2 learners' use of the L1 during consciousness‐raising, form‐focused tasks. The Modern Language Journal, 92(1), 100-113.
66. Shamash, Y. (1990). Learning in translation: Beyond language experience in ESL. Voices, 2(2), 71-75.
67. Shouyuan, W., & Xingwei, M. (2003). The theory and methods of English listening teaching. Media in Foreign Language Instruction, 4, 1-5.
68. Storch, N., & Wigglesworth, G. (2003). Is there a role for use of the L1 in L2 setting? TESOL quarterly, 37(4), 760-770.
69. Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. Input in second language acquisition, 15, 165-179.
70. Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (2000). Task-based second language learning: The uses of the first language. Language Teaching Research, 4(3), 251-274.
71. Tarone, E. (2007). Sociolinguistic approaches to second language acquisition research. The Modern Language Journal, 91, 837-848.
72. Thalheimer, W., & Cook, S. (2002). How to calculate effect sizes from published research: A simplified methodology. Work-Learning Research, 1, 1-9.
73. Timor, T. (2012). Use of the mother tongue in teaching a foreign language. Language Education in Asia, 3(1), 7-17.
74. Timuçin, M., & Baytar, İ. (2015). The functions of the use of L1: Insights from an EFL classroom. Kastamonu Education Journal, 23(1), 241-252.
75. Thompson, G. L. (2006). Teacher and student first language and target language use in the foreign language classroom: a qualitative and quantitative study of language choice (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Arizona, Arizona, USA
76. Tucker, G. R. (1999). A global perspective on bilingualism and bilingual education. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics.
77. Turnbull, M. (2001). There is a role for the L1 in second and foreign teaching, but …. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(4), 531-538.
78. Turnbull, M., & Arnett, K. (2002). Teachers’ uses of the target and first languages in second and foreign language classroom. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 22, 204–218.
79. Turnbull, M., & Dailey-O’Cain, J. (2009). Concluding reflections: Moving forward. First language use in second and foreign language learning, 182-186.
80. Upton, T. A. (1997). First and second language use in reading comprehension strategies of Japanese ESL students. TESL-EJ, 3(1).
81. Uzawa, K., & Cumming, A. (1989). Writing strategies in Japanese as a foreign language: Lowering or keeping up the standards. Canadian Modern Language Review, 46(1), 178-194.
82. VanPatten, B. (1996). Input processing and grammar instruction in second language acquisition. Greenwood Publishing Group.
83. VanPatten, B., & Lee, J. F. (1990). Second language acquisition/foreign language learning (No. 58). Multilingual Matters Ltd.
84. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
85. Wach, A., & Monroy, F. (2019). Beliefs about L1 use in teaching English: A comparative study of Polish and Spanish teacher-trainees. Language Teaching Research, 1362168819830422.
86. Wang, W., & Wen, Q. (2002). L1 use in the L2 composing process: An exploratory study of 16 Chinese EFL writers. Journal of second language writing, 11(3), 225-246.
87. Weschler, R. (1997). Uses of Japanese in the English Classroom: Introducing the Functional-Translation Method. Kyoritsu Women's University Department of International Studies Journal, 12, 87-110.
88. Yenice, Z. E. (2018). The Use of L1 in EFL Classrooms in the Context of Turkey. Uludağ University, Bursa, Turkey.
89. Yu, S. (2016). An Exploratory Study on the Role of L1 Use in Peer Written Feedback of L2 Writing. Porta Linguarum, 25,135-146.