-

Öz

The communications tradition began to form during years of upheaval in the first half of the 20th century and it grew in means of content and fields of practice, at pace with the developments in communication technologies. Under the shadow of the world wars, studies of the first era debated various aspects of media effects over the concept of propaganda; the 1960’ies gave precedence to the audience at the expense of media effects. With time, the importance attributed to audience demands and likings was criticized which led to an attempt to explain -in an empirical tradition- audience attitudes in a new kind of relation. While uses and gratifications research was going on, the media and audience relationship opened to itself a new field around the asymmetric concept of addiction. Arising within the uses and gratifications tradition, the media addiction model built its own tradition in parallel with the changes in communication technologies. Soon, many media effects and uses and gratifications research began from the perspective of addiction. By focusing on the transition stages from the uses and gratifications model to media addiction, our aim was to shed light on the developments in media studies in relation to changes in social systems and technological progress

Anahtar Kelimeler

• communication research, audience, usage and gratifications, media addiction

İZLEYİCİ ARAŞTIRMALARINDA DEĞİŞİM: KULLANIMLAR VE DOYUMLARDAN BAĞIMLILIĞA

Öz

20. yüzyılın ilk yarısında etkili olan siyasi kriz yıllarında oluşmaya başlayan iletişim geleneği, yeni iletişim teknolojileriyle birlikte içerik ve uygulama alanlarını geliştirmiştir. İlk dönem araştırmalarda büyük savaşların da etkisiyle propaganda kavramı üzerinden medya etkilerinin boyutları tartışılırken, 1960'lı yıllarda izleyici öne alınmış, medya etkileri sınırlı biçimde işlenmiştir. Kullanımlar ve Doyumlar Modeli (K&D) ile izleyici ihtiyaç ve beğenilerine atfedilen önemin zamanla eleştiriye uğraması, ampirik gelenek içerisinden izleyici tutumlarını yeni bir tür ilişki ile açıklama girişimini ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bir taraftan K&D araştırmaları devam ederken, diğer taraftan medya-izleyici ilişkisi simetrik olmayan bağımlılık kavramı etrafında kendine yeni bir alan açmıştır. K&D geleneğini kullanan Medya Bağımlılığı Modeli, teknolojik ilerlemeye paralel olarak iletişim sistemlerindeki dönüşümle birlikte kendi geleneğini oluşturmuştur. Etki ve K&D araştırmaları, bir süre sonra medya bağımlılığı perspektifinde ele alınmaya başlanmıştır. Dolayısıyla bu çalışma, toplumsal sistemlerdeki dönüşüm ile teknolojik ilerlemeye bağlı olarak gelişen medya araştırmalarının seyrine ışık tutmakla birlikte, K&D modelinden medya bağımlılığına geçişin aşamalarına odaklanmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• İletişim araştırmaları; izleyici; kullanımlar ve doyumlar; medya bağımlılığı

Kaynakça

1. Abelman R (June 1987) Religious Television Uses and Gratifications, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 31(3), 293-307.
2. Agrawal N (2007) Theories of Communication and Mass Media, Global Media, Jaipur.
3. Ahmed I, Qazi T F and Perji K A (2011) Mobile Phone to Youngsters: Necessity or Addiction, African Journal of Business Management, 5 (32), 12512-12519.
4. Aktaş H, Ayhan B, ve Altunbaş H (2013) Internet and the Youth: Internet Addiction Among University Students in Kyrgyzstan, Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium Communication in the Millenium, 244-250.
5. Ayhan B ve Balcı Ş (2009) Kırgızistan'da Üniversite Gençliği ve İnternet: Bir Kullanımlar ve Doyumlar Araştırması, Bilig (48), 13-40.
6. Balcı Ş ve Ayhan B (2007) Üniversite Öğrencilerinin İnternet Kullanım ve Doyumları Üzerine Bir Saha Araştırması. Selçuk İletişim, 5 (1), 174-197.
7. Balcı Ş ve Gölcü A (2013) Facebook Addiction Among University Students in Turkey: "Selcuk University Example", Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi (34), 255- 278.
8. Ball-Rokeach S and DeFleur M (1976) A Dependency Model of Mass-Media Effects, Communication Research, 3(3), 3-21.

9. Bennett R (2008) ELSPA Corporation, ELSPA Web Sitesi: www.elspa.com, erişim tarihi: 25.12.2013.
10. Berelson B (1952). Content Analysis in Communication Research, Hafner Press a Division of Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., Newyork.
11. Cao F and Su L (2006). Internet Addiction Among Chinese Adolescents: Prevalence and Psychological Features, Child: Care, Health and Development, 33(3), 275-281.
12. Childnet International (2006) http://www.childnet.com/downloads/factsheet_ addiction.pdf, erişim tarihi: 02.01.2014.
13. Conway J C and Rubin A M (1991) Psychological Predictions of Television Viewing Motivation, Communication Research, 18(4), 443-463.
14. Couldry N and Hepp A (2012) Media Cultures in a Global Age: A Transcultural Approach to an Expanded Spectrum, I. Volkmer, The Handbook of Global Media Research, A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication, UK, 92-109.
15. Cüceloğlu D (1993) İnsan ve Davranışı Psikolojinin Temel Kavramları, Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul. Elliott P (1974) Uses And Gratifications Research: A Critique And A Sociological Alternative, J. G. Blumler and E. Katz (Eds), The Uses of Mass Communications, Sage Publications, Inc., London, 249-268.
16. Erdoğan İ ve Alemdar K (2005) Öteki Kuram, Erk Yayınları, Ankara.
17. Erdoğan İ, Keloğlu-İşler E ve Durmuş N (2005) Kitle İletişiminde Pozitivist Ampirik Geleneğin Kuruluşu: Lazarsfeld ve Yönetimsel Araştırmalar, Gazi Üniversitesi İletişim Dergisi, 20 (2), 1-43.
18. Fejes F (2005) Eleştirel Kitle İletişim Araştırması ve Medya Etkileri: Yok Olan İzleyici Sorunu, M. Küçük (ed), Medya, İktidar, İdeoloji, M. Küçük (çev.), Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları, Ankara, 295-314.
19. Finn S (1992) Television "Addiction?" an Evaluation of Four Competing Media- Use Models, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 69(2), 422-435.
20. Greenberg B S (1974) Gratifications of Television Viewing and Their Correlates for British Children, J. G. Blumler and E. Katz (eds), The Uses of Mass Communications, Sage Publications, Inc., London, 71-91.
21. Gülnar B ve Balcı Ş (2012). Yeni Medya ve Kültürleşen Toplum, Literatürk Yayınları, Konya. Güngör N (2011) İletişim Kuramlar ve Yaklaşımlar, Siyasal Kitabevi, Ankara.
22. Gürer C, Dolu O, Demir S ve Köksal T (2009) Kavram Oluşturma ve Ölçüm, K. Böke (ed), Sosyal Bilimlerde Araştırma Yöntemleri, Alfa Yayınları, İstanbul.
23. Hazar Ç M (2011) Sosyal Medya Bağımlılığı-Bir Alan Araştırması, İletişim Kuram ve Araştırma Dergisi (32), 151-175.
24. Hogg M A and Vaughan G M (2007) Sosyal Psikoloji, İ. Yıldız ve A. Gelmez (çev.), Ütopya Yayınevi, Ankara.
25. Işık U (2007) Medya Bağımlılığı Teorisi Doğrultusunda İnternet Kullanımının Etkileri ve İnternet Bağımlılığı, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Konya.
26. Jensen K B and Rosengren K E (2005) Five Traditions in Search of the Audience, Denis McQuail, Peter Golding and Els de Bens (eds), Communication Theory & Research, Sage Publications, London UK, 53-70.
27. Jensen K B and Rosengren K E (2005) İzleyicinin Peşindeki Beş Gelenek, Ş. Yavuz (ed), Medya ve İzleyici Bitmeyen Tartışma, Ş. Yavuz ve Y. Yavuz (çev.) Vadi Yayınları, Ankara, 55-84.
28. Johnstone J W (1974) Social Integration and Mass Media Use Among Adolescents: A case Study, J. G. Blumler ve E. Katz (eds), The Uses of Mass Communication, Sage Publications, Inc., London, 35-47.
29. Kağıtçıbaşı Ç (1988) İnsan ve İnsanlar, Evrim Basım Yayım Dağıtım, İstanbul.
30. Katz E, Blumler J G and Gurevitch M (1974) Uses and Gratifications Research, The Public Opinion Quarterly, 37(4), 509-523.
31. Katz J E and Sugiyama S (2006) Mobile Phones as Fashion Statements: Evidence from Student Surveys in the US and Japan, New Media & Society, 8(2), 321-337.
32. Kaye B K and Jonshon T J (2002) Online and in the Know: Uses and Gratifications of the Web for Political Information, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 46(1), 54-71.
33. Keat R and Urry J (1994) Bir Bilim Olarak Sosyal Teori, N. Çelebi (çev.), İmge Kitabevi, Ankara. Larose R, Mastro D and Eastin M S (2001) Understanding Internet Usage: A Social-Cognitive Approach to Uses and Gratifications, Social Science Computer Review, 19, 395-413.
34. Lasswell H D (1948) The Structure and Function of Communication in Society, L. Bryson (ed), The Communication of Ideas, Harper and Brothers, New York.
35. Lawrence N W (2007) Basics of Social Research Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Pearson Education, USA.
36. Leung L and Wei R (2000). More than Just Talk on the Move: Uses and Gratifications of the Cellular Phone, Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 77(2), 308-320.
37. Lewis J (2005) İzlerkitle, E. Mutlu (ed), Kitle İletişim Kuramları, E. Mutlu (çev.), Ütopya Yayınevi, Ankara, 344-358.
38. Lievrouw L A (2009) New Media, Mediation and Communication Study, Information, Communication & Society, 12(3), 303-325.
39. Lull J (2001) Medya, Kültür, Siyaset, N. Güngör (çev.) Vadi Yayınları, Ankara.
40. Mcleod J and Becker L B (1974) Testing the Validity of Gratification Measures Through Political Effects Analysis, J. G. Blumler and E. Katz (eds), The Uses of Mass Communications, Sage Puplications, Inc., London, 137-164.
41. McQuail D (1984) With the Benefit of Hindsight: Reflections on Uses and Gratifications Research, Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 1(2), 177-193.
42. McQuail D and Windahl S (1997) Kitle İletişim Modelleri, K. Yumlu (çev.), İmge Kitabevi, Ankara. McQuail D, Blumler J G and Brown J (1972) The Television Audience: A Revised Repspective, Sociology of Mass Communications, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 135-165.
43. Neuman L W (2007) Basics of Social Research Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Pearson Education, USA.
44. Ng B D and Hastings P W (2005). Addiction to the Internet and Online Gaming, Cyberpsychology & Behavior , 8(2), 110-114.
45. O'Donohoe S (1994) Advertising Uses and Gratifications, European Journal of Marketing, 28(8/9), 52-75.
46. Özcan Y Z ve Koçak A (2003). Reseach Note: A Need or a Status Symbol? Use of Cellular Telephones in Turkey, European Journal of Communication, 18(2), 241- 254.
47. Papacharissi Z (2008) Uses and Gratifications, D. S. In Michael Salwen (ed), Lawrence Erlbaum, 137-152.
48. Papacharissi Z and Rubin A M (2000) Predictors of Internet Use, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic, 44(2), 175-196.
49. Park W K (2005) Mobile Phone Addiction, R. Ling and P. E. Pedersen (eds), Mobile Communications Re-negotiation of the Social Sphere, Springer-Verlag London, 253-272. Perry D K (2001) Theory and Research in Mass Communication Contexts and Consequences, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Publishers, USA.
50. Raacke J and Bonds-Raacke J (2008). My Space and Facebook: Applying the Uses and
51. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11(2), 169-174. Theory to Exploring Friend-Networking
52. Sites, Rayburn J D and Palmgreen P (1984) Merging Uses and Gratifications and Exqectancy-Value Theory, Communication Research, 11(4), 537-562.
53. Rosengren K E (1974) Uses and Gratifications: A Paradigm Outlined, J. G. Blummer and E. Katz (eds), The Uses of Mass Communication, Sage Publications, Inc., London, 269-286.
54. Rosengren K E (1983) Communication Research: One Paradigm, or Four?, Journal of Communication, Summer, 185-207.
55. Rubin A M (1983) Television Uses and Gratifications: The Interactions of Viewing Patterns and Motivations, Journal of Broadcasting, 27(1), 37-51.
56. Rubin A M and Windahl S (1986) The Uses and Dependency Model of Mass Communication, Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 3(2), 184-199.
57. Ruddock A (2001) Understanding Audiences: Theory and Method, Sage Publications Inc, London.
58. Ruggiero T E (2000) Uses and Gratifications Theory in The 21st Century, Mass Communication&Society, 3(1), 3-37.
59. Sherer M, Maddux J E, Mercandante B, Prentice-dunn S, Jacobs B and Rogers R W. (1982) The Self-Efficacy Scale: Construction and Validation, Psychological Reports, 663-671. Simkova B and Cincera J (2004) Internet Addiction Disorder and Chatting in the Czech Republic, CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7(5), 536-539.
60. Song I, Larose R, Eastin M S and Lin C A (2004) Internet Gratifications and Internet Addiction: On the Uses and Abuses of New Media, CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7(4), 384-394.
61. Statt D A (1998) Concise Dictionary of Psychology, Routledge, London.
62. Trend D (2008) Medyada Şiddet Efsanesi, G. Bostancı (çev.), Yapı Kredi Yayınları, İstanbul.
63. Watson J and Hill A (2012) Dictionary of Media and Communication Studies, Bloomsbury Publishing, London.
64. Webster J G and Lin S F (2002). The Internet Audience: Web Use as Mass Behavior, Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 46(1), 1-12.
65. Wei R (2008). Motivations for Using the Mobile Phone for Mass Communications and Entertainment, Telematics and Informatics, 25(1), 36-46.
66. Williams K (2003) Understanding Media Theory, Arnold Publishers, London.
67. Yılmaz E ve Çağıltay K (2005). History Of Digital Games in Turkey, Proceedings of DiGRA 2005 Conference: Changing Views – Worlds in Play, Ankara, 1-9.
68. Yin Zhang M A, Leo Shing-Tung Tang B A and Leung L (2011). Gratifications, Collective Communication
69. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, erişim tarihi: 10.12.2013. as of Facebook Apprehension Predictors
70. Uses, Young K S (1996) Psychology of Computer Use: XL. Addictive Use of Internet: A Case That Breaks The Stereotype, Psychological Reports, 899-902.
71. Young K S (1998) Internet Addiction: The Emergence of a New Clinical Disorder, Cyber Psychology & Behavior, 1(3), 237-244.
72. Zhang L and Zhang W (2013). Real-Time Internet News Browsing: Information vs. Experience-related Gratifications and Behaviour, Computers in Human Behavior, (29), 2712–2721.