The Role of Vitamins in Alzheimer's Disease

Öz

Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that occurs due to loss of neurons and synapses in various parts of the central nervous system, characterized by decreased cognitive functions, self-care deficits, and various neuropsychiatric and behavioral disorders. Many factors such as oxidative stress, abnormal tau protein, amyloid deposition, metabolism, inflammation, age, genetic factors, head trauma, vascular damage, infections, environmental factors and nutrition play a role in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease, which is a multifactorial disease. Prophylactic and therapeutic approaches are being developed against Alzheimer's disease, which has a significant impact on human life and has not yet been fully cured. Emphasizing the importance of healthy nutrition in Alzheimer's disease, patients and their relatives are tried to be informed. In this review, information about the role and importance of vitamins associated with Alzheimer's disease, which has become an important health problem for the whole world, is presented.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Alzheimer’s Disease
• Nutrition
• Vitamin

ALZHEİMER HASTALIĞINDA VİTAMİNLERİN ROLÜ

Öz

Alzheimer hastalığı, merkezi sinir sisteminin çeşitli bölgelerinde nöron ve sinaps kayıpları nedeniyle ortaya çıkan, bilişsel işlevlerde azalma, öz bakım eksiklikleri, çeşitli nöropsikiyatrik ve davranışsal bozukluklar ile karakterize progresif bir nörodejeneratif hastalıktır. Çok faktörlü bir hastalık olan Alzheimer hastalığının etiyolojisinde oksidatif stres, anormal tau protein metabolizması, amiloid birikimi, enflamasyon, yaş, genetik faktörler, kafa travmaları, vasküler hasar, enfeksiyonlar, çevresel faktörler ve beslenme gibi birçok faktör rol oynamaktadır. İnsan hayatını önemli ölçüde etkileyen, henüz tam olarak tedavi edilemeyen Alzheimer hastalığına karşı profilaktik ve tedavi edici yaklaşımlar geliştirilmektedir. Alzheimer hastalığında sağlıklı beslenmenin önemi vurgulanarak hastalar ve yakınları bilgilendirilmeye çalışılmaktadır. Bu derlemede, tüm dünya için önemli bir sağlık sorunu haline gelen Alzheimer hastalığı ile ilişkili vitaminlerin hastalıktaki rolü ve önemi hakkında bilgiler sunulmuştur.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Alzheimer hastalığı
• beslenme
• vitamin

Kaynakça

1. Agus, D. B, Gambhir, S. S., Pardridge W. M., Spielholz. C., Baselga, J., Vera, J. C., Golde, D. W. (1997). Vitamin C crosses the blood-brain barrier in the oxidized form through the glucose transporters. J Clin Invest, 100(11), 2842-2848.
2. Aisen, P. S., Schneider, L. S, Sano, M., Diaz-Arrastia, R., van Dyck, C. H., Weiner, M. F., Bottiglieri, T., Jin, S., Stokes, K. T., Thomas, R. G., Thal, L. J. (2008). Alzheimer Disease Cooperative Study. High-dose B vitamin supplementation and cognitive decline in Alzheimer disease: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 300(15), 1774-1783.
3. Alam, P., Chaturvedi, S. K., Siddiqi, M. K., Rajpoot, R. K., Ajmal, M. R., Zaman, M., Khan, R. H. (2016). Vitamin k3 inhibits protein aggregation: implication in the treatment of amyloid diseases. Sci Rep, 6, 26759.
4. Alisi L., Cao, R., De Angelis, C., Cafolla, A., Caramia, F., Cartocci, G., Librando, A., Fiorelli, M. (2019). The relationships between vitamin K and cognition: a review of current evidence. Front Neurol, 10, 239.
5. An, Y., Feng, L., Zhang, X., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., Tao, L., Qin, Z., Xiao, R. (2019). Dietary intakes and biomarker patterns of folate, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 can be associated with cognitive impairment by hypermethylation of redox-related genes NUDT15 and TXNRD1. Clin Epigenetics, 11(1), 139.
6. Annweiler, C. & Beauchet, O. (2011). Vitamin D-mentia: randomized clinical trials should be the next step. Neuroepidemiology, 37(3-4), 249-258.
7. Annweiler, C., Llewellyn, D. J., Beauchet, O. (2013). Low serum vitamin D concentrations in Alzheimer's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 33(3), 659-674.
8. Banerjee, A., Khemka, V. K., Ganguly, A., Roy, D., Ganguly, U., Chakrabarti, S. (2015). Vitamin D and Alzheimer's Disease: Neurocognition to Therapeutics. Int J Alzheimers Dis, 2015, 192747.

9. Bano, S. & Parihar, M. S. (1997). Reduction of lipid peroxidation in different brain regions by a combination of alpha-tocopherol and ascorbic acid. J Neural Transm (Vienna), 104(11-12), 1277-1286.
10. Basambombo, L. L., Carmichael, P. H., Côté, S., Laurin D. (2017). Use of vitamin E and C supplements for the prevention of cognitive decline. Ann Pharmacother, 51(2), 118-124. Bivona, G., Gambino, C.M., Iacolino, G., Ciaccio, M. (2019). Vitamin D and the nervous system. Neurol Res, 41, 827-835.
11. Bourdel-Marchasson, I., Delmas-Beauvieux, M. C., Peuchant, E., Richard-Harston, S., Decamps, A., Reignier, B, Emeriau, J. P., Rainfray, M. (2001). Antioxidant defences and oxidative stress markers in erythrocytes and plasma from normally nourished elderly Alzheimer patients. Age Ageing, 3, 235-241.
12. Brewer, L. D., Thibault, V., Chen, K. C., Langub, M. C., Landfield, P. W., Porter, N. M. (2001). Vitamin D hormone confers neuroprotection in parallel with downregulation of L-type calcium channel expression in hippocampal neurons. J Neurosci, 21(1), 98-108. Brown, J., Bianco, J. I., McGrath, J. J., Eyles, D. W. (2003). 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 induces nerve growth factor, promotes neurite outgrowth and inhibits mitosis in embryonic rat hippocampal neurons. Neurosci Lett, 343(2), 139-143.
13. Carlberg, C. (2017). Endocrine functions of vitamin D. Mol Cell Endocrinol, 453, 1-2. Carrie, I., Belanger, E., Portoukalian, J., Rochford J., Ferland, G. 2011). Lifelong low-phylloquinone intake is associated with cognitive impairments in old rats. J Nutr, 141(8), 1495-1501.
14. Carrie, I., Portoukalian, J., Vicaretti, R., Rochford, J., Potvin, S., Ferland, G. (2004). Menaquinone-4 concentration is correlated with sphingolipid concentrations in rat brain. J Nutr, 134(1), 167-172.
15. Chouet, J., Ferland, G., Féart, C., Rolland, Y., Presse, N., Boucher, K., Barberger-Gateau P., Beauchet O., Annweiler C. (2015). Dietary vitamin K intake is associated with cognition and behaviour among geriatric patients: the CLIP study. Nutrients, 7, 6739-6750.
16. Conte, V., Uryu, K., Fujimoto, S., Yao, Y., Rokach, J., Longhi, L., Trojanowski, J. Q., Lee, V. M., McIntosh, T. K., Praticò, D. (2004). Vitamin E reduces amyloidosis and improves cognitive function in Tg2576 mice following repetitive concussive brain injury. J Neurochem, 90(3), 758-764.
17. Corcoran, J. P., So, P. L., Maden, M. (2004). Disruption of the retinoid signalling pathway causes a deposition of amyloid beta in the adult rat brain. Eur J Neurosci, (4), 896-902.
18. Cui, X., Gooch, H., Petty, A., McGrath, J. J., Eyles, D. (2017). Vitamin D and the brain: Genomic and non-genomic actions. Mol Cell Endocrinol, 453, 131-143.
19. Dangour, A. D., Whitehouse PJ, Rafferty K, Mitchell SA, Smith L, Hawkesworth S, Vellas B. (2010). B-vitamins and fatty acids in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease and dementia: a systematic review. J Alzheimers Dis, 22(1), 205-224.
20. Denisova, N. A., Booth, SL. (2005). Vitamin K and sphingolipid metabolism: evidence to date. Nutr Rev, 63(4), 111-121.
21. Diesel, B., Radermacher, J., Bureik, M., Bernhardt, R., Seifert, M., Reichrath, J., Fischer, U., Meese, E. (2005). Vitamin D (3) metabolism in human glioblastoma multiforme: functionality of CYP27B1 splice variants, metabolism of calcidiol, and effect of calcitriol. Clin Cancer Res, 11(15), 5370-5380.
22. DiNicolantonio, J. J., Bhutani, J., O’Keefe, J. H. (2015). The health benefits of vitamin K. Open Heart, 2(1), e000300.
23. Douaud, G., Refsum, H., de Jager, C. A., Jacoby, R., Nichols, T. E., Smith, S. M., Smith, A. D. (2013). Preventing Alzheimer's disease-related gray matter atrophy by B-vitamin treatment. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 110(23), 9523-9528.
24. Durga, J., van Boxtel, M. P., Schouten, E. G., Kok, F. J., Jolles, J., Katan, M. B., Verhoef, P. (2007). Effect of 3-year folic acid supplementation on cognitive function in older adults in the FACIT trial: a randomised, double blind, controlled trial. Lancet, 369(9557), 208-216.
25. Eyles, D. W., Smith, S., Kinobe, R., Hewison, M., McGrath, J. J. (2005). Distribution of the vitamin D receptor and 1 alpha-hydroxylase in human brain. J Chem Neuroanat, 1, 21-30.
26. Ferland, G. (2012). The discovery of vitamin K and its clinical applications. Ann Nutr Metab, 61(3), 213-218.
27. Flicker, L., Martins, R. N., Thomas, J., Acres, J., Taddei, K., Vasikaran, S. D., Norman, P., Jamrozik, K., Almeida O. P. (2008). B-vitamins reduce plasma levels of beta amyloid. Neurobiol Aging, 29(2), 303-305.
28. Fuso, A., Seminara, L., Cavallaro, R. A., D'Anselmi, F., Scarpa, S. (2005). S-adenosylmethionine/homocysteine cycle alterations modify DNA methylation status with consequent deregulation of PS1 and BACE and beta-amyloid production. Mol Cell Neurosci, (1), 195-204.
29. Galli, F., Azzi, A., Birringer, M., Cook-Mills, J. M., Eggersdorfer, M., Frank, J., Cruciani, G., Lorkowski, S., Özer, N. K. (2017). Vitamin E: Emerging aspects and new directions. Free Radic Biol Med, 102, 16-36.
30. Garcion, E., Wion-Barbot, N., Montero-Menei, C. N., Berger, F., Wion, D. (2002). New clues about vitamin D functions in the nervous system. Trends Endocrinol Metab, 3, 100-105. Gezen-Ak, D., Yılmazer, S., Dursun, E. (2014). Why vitamin D in Alzheimer's disease? The hypothesis. J Alzheimers Dis, 40(2), 257-269.
31. Goncalves, M. B., Clarke, E., Hobbs, C., Malmqvist, T., Deacon, R., Jack, J., Corcoran, J. P. (2013). Amyloid β inhibits retinoic acid synthesis exacerbating Alzheimer disease pathology which can be attenuated by an retinoic acid receptor α agonist. Eur J Neurosci, 37(7), 1182-1192.
32. Granger, M., Eck, P. (2018). Dietary Vitamin C in Human Health. Adv Food Nutr Res, 83, 281-310.
33. Grimm, M. O., Mett, J., Hartmann, T. (2016). The Impact of Vitamin E and Other Fat-Soluble Vitamins on Alzheimer´s Disease. Int J Mol Sci, 17(11), 1785.
34. Gromova, O. A., Torshin, I. Y., Pronin, A. V., Kilchevsky M. A. (2017). Synergistic application of zinc and vitamin C to support memory, attention and the reduction of the risk of the neurological diseases. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova, 117(7), 112-119.
35. Groves, N. J., McGrath, J. J., Burne, T. H. (2014). Vitamin D as a neurosteroid affecting the developing and adult brain. Annu Rev Nutr, 34, 117-141.
36. Han, Q. Q., Shen, T. T., Wang, F., Wu, P. F., Chen, J. G. (2018). Preventive and Therapeutic Potential of Vitamin C in Mental Disorders. Curr Med Sci, 38(1), 1-10.
37. Hara, H,. Kato, H., Kogure, K. (1990). Protective effect of alpha-tocopherol on ischemic neuronal damage in the gerbil hippocampus. Brain Res, 510(2), 335-338.
38. Harrison, F. E., May, J. M. (2009). Vitamin C function in the brain: vital role of the ascorbate transporter SVCT2. Free Radic Biol Med, 46(6), 719-730.
39. Holick, M. F. (2015). Vitamin D and brain health: the need for vitamin D supplementation and sensible sun exposure. J Intern Med, 277(1), 90-93.
40. Ito, S., Ohtsuki, S., Nezu, Y., Koitabashi, Y., Murata, S., Terasaki, T. (2011). 1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 enhances cerebral clearance of human amyloid-β peptide(1-40) from mouse brain across the blood-brain barrier. Fluids Barriers CNS, 8(8), 20.
41. Jiménez-Jiménez, F. J., Molina, J. A., de Bustos, F., Ortí-Pareja, M., Benito-León, J., Tallón-Barranco, A., Gasalla, T., Porta, J., Arenas J. (1999). Serum levels of beta-carotene, alpha-carotene and vitamin A in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurol, (4), 495-497.
42. Knopman, D. S., DeKosky, S. T., Cummings, J. L., Chui, H., Corey-Bloom, J., Relkin, N., Small, G. W., Miller, B., Stevens, J. C. (2001). Practice parameter: diagnosis of dementia (an evidence-based review). Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology, 56(9), 1143-1153.
43. Koryakina, A., Aeberhard, J., Kiefer, S., Hamburger, M., Küenzi, P. (2009). Regulation of secretases by all-trans-retinoic acid. FEBS J, 276(9), 2645-255.
44. Kruman, I. I., Culmsee, C., Chan, S. L., Kruman, Y., Guo, Z., Penix, L., Mattson, M. P. (2000). Homocysteine elicits a DNA damage response in neurons that promotes apoptosis and hypersensitivity to excitotoxicity. J Neurosci, 20(18), 6920-6926.
45. Kryscio, R. J., Abner, E. L., Caban-Holt, A., Lovell, M., Goodman, P., Darke, A. K., Yee, M., Crowley, J., Schmitt, F. A. (2017). Association of antioxidant supplement use and dementia in the prevention of Alzheimer’s disease by vitamin E and selenium trial (PREADViSE). JAMA Neurol, 74, 567-573.
46. La Fata, G., Weber, P., Mohajeri, M. H. (2014). Effects of vitamin E on cognitive performance during ageing and in Alzheimer's disease. Nutrients, 6(12), 5453-5472. Lam, D. K., Daniel, P. M. (1986). The influx of ascorbic acid into the rat's brain. Q J Exp Physiol, 71(3), 483-489.
47. Lamson, D. W., Plaza, S. M. (2003). The anticancer effects of vitamin K. Altern Med Rev, 8(3), 303-318.
48. Lane, M. A., Bailey, S. J. (2005). Role of retinoid signalling in the adult brain. Prog Neurobiol, 75(4), 275-293.
49. Llewellyn, D. J., Langa, K. M., Lang, I. A. (2009). Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration and cognitive impairment. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol, 3, 188-195.
50. Ma, F., Wu, T., Zhao, J., Ji, L., Song, A., Zhang, M., Huang, G. (2017). Plasma homocysteine and serum folate and vitamin B12 levels in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease: A Case-Control Study. Nutrients, 9(7), pii: E725.
51. Mariani, E., Polidori, M. C., Cherubini, A., Mecocci, P. (2005). Oxidative stress in brain aging, neurodegenerative and vascular diseases: an overview. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci, 827(1), 65-75.
52. Masaki, K. H., Losonczy, K. G., Izmirlian, G., Foley, D. J., Ross, G. W., Petrovitch, H., Havlik, R., White, L. R. (2000). Association of vitamin E and C supplement use with cognitive function and dementia in elderly men. Neurology, 54(6), 1265-1272.
53. Masoumi, A., Goldenson, B., Ghirmai, S., Avagyan, H., Zaghi, J., Abel, K., Zheng, X., Espinosa-Jeffrey, A., Mahanian, M., Liu, P. T., Hewison, M., Mizwickie, M., Cashman, J., Fiala, M. (2009). 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 interacts with curcuminoids to stimulate amyloid-beta clearance by macrophages of Alzheimer's disease patients. J Alzheimers Dis, 17(3), 703-717.
54. Masoumi, A., Goldenson, B., Ghirmai, S., Avagyan, H., Zaghi, J., Abel, K., Zheng, X., Espinosa-Jeffrey, A., Mahanian, M., Liu, P. T., Hewison, M., Mizwickie, M., Cashman, J., Fiala, M. (2009). 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 interacts with curcuminoids to stimulate amyloid-beta clearance by macrophages of Alzheimer's disease patients. Journal of Alzheimer's disease, 17(3), 703-717.
55. McCann, A., Jeffery, I. B., Ouliass, B, Ferland, G., Fu, X., Booth, S. L., Tran, T. T. T., O'Toole, P. W., O'Connor, E. M. (2019). Exploratory analysis of covariation of microbiota-derived vitamin K and cognition in older adults. Am J Clin Nutr, 110(6), 1404-1415.
56. Medrano, M., Carrillo-Cruz, E., Montero, I., Perez-Simon, J. A. (2018). Vitamin D: Effect on haematopoiesis and immune system and clinical applications. Int J Mol Sci, 19(9), 2663.
57. Min, J. Y., Min, K. B. (2014). Serum lycopene, lutein and zeaxanthin, and the risk of Alzheimer's disease mortality in older adults. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord, 37(3-4), 246-256.
58. Mizwicki, M. T., Menegaz, D., Zhang, J., Barrientos-Durán, A., Tse, S., Cashman, J. R., Griffin, P. R., Fiala, M. (2012). Genomic and nongenomic signaling induced by 1α,25(OH)2-vitamin D3 promotes the recovery of amyloid-β phagocytosis by Alzheimer's disease macrophages. J Alzheimers Dis, 29(1), 51-62.
59. Monacelli, F., Acquarone, E., Giannotti C., Borghi, R., Nencioni A. (2017). Vitamin C, aging and Alzheimer's disease. Nutrients, 9(7), pii: E670.
60. Morello, M., Landel, V., Lacassagne, E., Baranger, K., Annweiler, C., Féron, F., Millet, P. (2018). Vitamin D Improves Neurogenesis and Cognition in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease. Mol Neurobiol, 55(8), 6463-6479.
61. Morris, M. S. (2003). Homocysteine and Alzheimer's disease. Lancet Neurol, (7), 425-428. Nakajima, M., Furukawa, S., Hayashi, K., Yamada, A., Kawashima, T., Hayashi, Y. (1993). Age-dependent survival-promoting activity of vitamin K on cultured CNS neurons. Brain Res Dev Brain Res, 73(1), 17-23.
62. Nolan, J. M., Loskutova, E., Howard, A., Mulcahy, R., Moran, R., Stack, J., Bolger, M., Coen, R. F., Dennison, J., Akuffo, K. O., Owens, N., Power, R., Thurnham, D., Beatty, S. (2015). The impact of supplemental macular carotenoids in Alzheimer's disease: a randomized clinical trial. J Alzheimers Dis, 44(4), 1157-1169.
63. Nystad, A. E., Wergeland, S., Aksnes, L., Myhr, K. M., Bø, L., Torkildsen, O. (2014). Effect of high-dose 1.25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 on remyelination in the cuprizone model. APMIS, 122(12), 1178-1186.
64. Olajide, O. J., Yawson, E. O., Gbadamosi, I. T., Arogundade, T. T., Lambe, E., Obasi, K., Lawal, I. T., Ibrahim, A., Ogunrinola, K. Y. (2017). Ascorbic acid ameliorates behavioural deficits and neuropathological alterations in rat model of Alzheimer's disease. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol, 50, 200-211.
65. Ortega, R. M., Requejo, A. M., López-Sobaler, A. M., Andrés, P., Navia, B., Perea, J. M., Robles, F. (2002). Cognitive function in elderly people is influenced by vitamin E status. J Nutr, 132(7), 2065-2068.
66. Perrig, W. J., Perrig, P., Stähelin, H. B. (1997). The relation between antioxidants and memory performance in the old and very old. J Am Geriatr Soc, (6), 718-724.
67. Plaza, S. M., Lamson, D. W. (2005). Vitamin K2 in bone metabolism and osteoporosis. Altern Med Rev, 10(1), 24-35.
68. Popescu, D. C., Huang, H., Singhal, N. K., Shriver, L., McDonough, J., Clements, R. J., Freeman, E. J. (2018). Vitamin K enhances the production of brain sulfatides during remyelination. PLoS One, 13(8), e0203057.
69. Presse, N., Belleville, S., Gaudreau, P., Greenwood, C. E., Kergoat, M. J., Morais, J. A., Payette, H., Shatenstein, B., Ferland, G. (2013). Vitamin K status and cognitive function in healthy older adults. Neurobiol Aging, 34(12), 2777-2783.
70. Presse, N., Shatenstein, B., Kergoat, M. J., Ferland, G. (2008). Low vitamin K intakes in community-dwelling elders at an early stage of Alzheimer's disease. J Am Diet Assoc, 108(12), 2095-2099.
71. Ravaglia, G., Forti, P., Maioli, F., Martelli, M., Servadei, L., Brunetti, N., Porcellini, E., Licastro, F. (2005). Homocysteine and folate as risk factors for dementia and Alzheimer disease. Am J Clin Nutr, 82(3), 636-643.
72. Reinhardt, S., Grimm, M. O., Stahlmann, C., Hartmann, T., Shudo, K., Tomita, T., Endres, K. (2016). Rescue of hypovitaminosis A induces non-amyloidogenic amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing. Curr Alzheimer Res, 13(11), 1277-1289.
73. Rinaldi, P., Polidori, M. C., Metastasio, A., Mariani, E., Mattioli, P., Cherubini, A., Catani, M., Cecchetti, R., Senin, U., Mecocci, P. (2003). Plasma antioxidants are similarly depleted in mild cognitive impairment and in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging, 24(7), 915-919.
74. Robinson, N., Grabowski, P., Rehman, I. (2018). Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis: Is there a role for folate? Mech Ageing Dev, 174, 86-94.
75. Sano, M., Ernesto, C., Thomas, R. G., Klauber, M. R., Schafer, K., Grundman, M., Woodbury, P., Growdon, J., Cotman, C. W., Pfeiffer, E., Schneider, L. S., Thal, L. J. (1997). A controlled trial of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheimer's disease. The Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study. N Engl J Med, 336(17), 1216-1222.
76. Sato, Y., Honda, Y., Hayashida, N., Iwamoto, J., Kanoko, T., Satoh, K. (2005). Vitamin K deficiency and osteopenia in elderly women with Alzheimer's disease. Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 86(3), 576-581.
77. Schwalfenberg, G. K. (2017). Vitamins K1 and K2: The Emerging Group of Vitamins Required for Human Health. J Nutr Metab, 2017, 6254836.
78. Seshadri, S., Beiser, A., Selhub, J., Jacques, P. F., Rosenberg, I. H., D'Agostino, R. B., Wilson, P. W., Wolf, P. A. (2002). Plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for dementia and Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med, 346(7), 476-483.
79. Shearer, M. J., Fu, X., Booth, S. L. (2012). Vitamin K nutrition, metabolism, and requirements: current concepts and future research. Adv Nutr, 3(2), 182-195.
80. Shearer, M. J., Newman, P. (2008). Metabolism and cell biology of vitamin K. Thromb Haemost, 100(4), 530-547.
81. Shiraki, M., Tsugawa, N., Okano, T. (2015). Recent advances in vitamin K-dependent Gla-containing proteins and vitamin K nutrition. Osteoporos Sarcopenia, 1(1), 22-38.
82. Sil, S., Ghosh, T., Gupta, P., Ghosh, R., Kabir, S. N., Roy A. (2016). Dual role of vitamin C on the neuroinflammation mediated neurodegeneration and memory impairments in colchicine induced rat model of Alzheimer disease. J Mol Neurosci, 60(4), 421-435.
83. Smith, A. D., Smith, S. M., de Jager, C. A., Whitbread, P., Johnston, C., Agacinski, G., Oulhaj, A., Bradley, K. M., Jacoby, R., Refsum, H. (2010). Homocysteine-lowering by B vitamins slows the rate of accelerated brain atrophy in mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trial. PLoS One, 5(9), e12244.
84. Sodhi, R. K., Singh, N. (2014). Retinoids as potential targets for Alzheimer's disease. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 120, 117-23.
85. Soutif-Veillon, A., Ferland, G., Rolland, Y., Presse, N., Boucher, K., Féart, C., Annweiler, C. (2016). Increased dietary vitamin K intake is associated with less severe subjective memory complaint among older adults. Maturitas, 93, 131-136.
86. Swaminathan, A., Jicha, G. A. (2014). Nutrition and prevention of Alzheimer's dementia. Front Aging Neurosci, 6, 282.
87. Tamadon-Nejad, S., Ouliass, B., Rochford, J., Ferland, G. (2018). Vitamin K Deficiency Induced by Warfarin Is Associated With Cognitive and Behavioral Perturbations, and Alterations in Brain Sphingolipids in Rats. Front Aging Neurosci, 16(10), 213.
88. Tarawneh, R., Holtzman, D. M. (2012). The clinical problem of symptomatic Alzheimer disease and mild cognitive impairment. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med, (5), a006148. Troesch, B., Weber, P., Mohajeri, M. H. (2016). Potential links between impaired one-carbon metabolism due to polymorphisms, inadequate B-vitamin status, and the development of Alzheimer's disease. Nutrients, 8(12), 803.
89. Tsang, CK, Kamei, Y. (2002). Novel effect of vitamin K(1) (phylloquinone) and vitamin K(2) (menaquinone) on promoting nerve growth factor-mediated neurite outgrowth from PC12D cells. Neurosci Lett, 323(1), 9-12.
90. Wang, S. W., Yang, S. G., Liu, W. Zhang, Y. X., Xu, P. X., Wang, T., Ling, T. J., Liu, R. T. (2016). Alpha-tocopherol quinine ameliorates spatial memory deficits by reducing beta-amyloid oligomers, neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in transgenic mice with Alzheimer's disease. Behav Brain Res, 296, 109-117.
91. Yu, J., Gattoni-Celli, M., Zhu, H., Bhat, N. R., Sambamurti, K., Gattoni-Celli, S., Kindy, M. S. (2011). Vitamin D3-enriched diet correlates with a decrease of amyloid plaques in the brain of AβPP transgenic mice. J Alzheimers Dis, 25(2), 295-307.
92. Zeng, J., Chen, L., Wang, Z., Chen, Q., Fan, Z., Jiang, H., Wu, Y., Ren, L., Chen, J., Li, T., Song, W. (2017). Marginal vitamin A deficiency facilitates Alzheimer's pathogenesis. Acta Neuropathol, 133(6), 967-982.
93. Zhang, D. M., Ye, J. X., Mu, J. S., Cui, X. P. (2017). Efficacy of Vitamin B Supplementation on Cognition in Elderly Patients With Cognitive-Related Diseases. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol, (1), 50-59.