Disaster and Women: Gender-Based Vulnerability, Disaster Management and Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Services

Öz

Disasters are natural or man-made catastrophes affecting millions of people all over the world. They could result into losses, significant physical and psychological health problems, infrastructure damage and socioeconomic difficulties. Disasters do not affect all societies or individuals in the same way. Vulnerability is the physical, social, economic and environmental conditions that increase an individual or community's susceptibility to the effects of potential disasters. Women and girls, in particular, are more vulnerable to the effects of disaster both in developing and developed countries. They experience a higher risk of mortality, health problems, psychosocial issues, violence and socioeconomic decline after disasters as compared to man. Mainly due to gender roles women having lower education and income levels, their health and privacy needs often being ignored, and having limited access to resources, eventually causing them to be more affected by disasters. In order to reduce women's vulnerability to disasters, gender-sensitive disaster management should be employed. In this way, women's problems and difficulties can be taken into consideration both in disaster preparation and intervention phase. Moreover, gender-sensitive and transformative mental health and psychosocial support services are crucial to meet the mental health needs of women and girls based on gender, culture and social norms. Novel and gender based care models could support women’s psychological well-being on a greater extent. Increasing women's capacity to cope with disasters will contribute to the strengthening of society and make it more resilient to disasters.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• disaster psychology
• vulnerability
• gender
• mental health and psychosocial support

Afet ve Kadın: Toplumsal Cinsiyete Dayalı Zarar Görebilirlik, Afet Yönetimi, Ruh Sağlığı ve Psikososyal Destek Hizmetleri

Öz

Afetler tüm dünyada milyonlarca insanı etkileyen doğa ya da insan kaynaklı felaketlerdir. Can kayıplarına, önemli fiziksel ve psikolojik sağlık sorunlarına, alt yapı hasarlarına ve sosyoekonomik güçlüklere yol açabilirler. Afetler tüm toplumları ya da bireyleri aynı şekilde etkilemezler. Zarar görebilirlik bir bireyin veya topluluğun olası felaketlerin etkilerine duyarlılığını artıran fiziksel, sosyal, ekonomik ve çevresel koşullardır. Özellikle kadınlar ve kız çocukları, gerek gelişmiş gerekse gelişmekte olan ülkelerde afetin etkilerine karşı daha savunmasızdırlar. Erkeklere kıyasla daha yüksek oranlarda ölüm riski, sağlık sorunları, psikososyal problemler, şiddet olayları ve sosyoekonomik gerileme riskleri yaşamaktadırlar. Bu zarar görebilirliğin en önemli kaynağı ise toplumsal cinsiyet rolleridir. Bu roller gereği kadınların daha düşük eğitim ve gelir düzeyine sahip olmaları, sağlık ve mahremiyet ihtiyaçlarının çoğu zaman görmezden gelinmesi, kaynaklara erişimlerinin sınırlı olması gibi unsurlar afetlerden daha çok etkilenmelerine yol açmaktadır. Ayrıca afet öncesinde zaten yaşanmakta olan yoksulluk gibi deneyimler de daha derinleşmektedir. Kadınların afetlerden zarar görebilirliğinin azaltılabilmesi için toplumsal cinsiyete duyarlı afet yönetimi programlarının hayata geçmesi gereklidir. Bu sayede gerek afete hazırlık gerekse müdahale aşamasında kadınların ihtiyaçları ve yaşadıkları zorluklar gözetilebilir ve nihayetinde afetlerin etkileri ile başa çıkma kapasitelerinin arttırılması mümkün olabilir. Bunun yanı sıra cinsiyete duyarlı ve dönüştürücü ruh sağlığı ve psikososyal destek hizmetleri ile kadınların ve kız çocuklarının cinsiyete, kültüre ve toplumsal normlara dayalı ruh sağlığı ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak, psikolojik iyilik hallerini cinsiyet bakış açısı ile daha kapsamlı bir şekilde desteklemek gerekmektedir. Kadınların afetlerle başa çıkma kapasitelerini arttırmak toplumun da güçlenmesine ve afetlere karşı daha dirençli hale gelmesine katkı yapacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• afet psikolojisi
• zarar görebilirlik
• toplumsal cinsiyet
• ruh sağlığı ve psikososyal destek

Kaynakça

1. Afet ve Acil Durum Başkanlığı [AFAD]. (2022). Açıklamalı afet yönetimi terimleri sözlüğü. https://www.afad.gov.tr/aciklamali-afet-yonetimi-terimleri-sozlugu
2. Afet Epidemiyolojisi Araştırma Merkezi [CRED]. (2022). Disaster Year in Review 2022, CRED Crunch Newsletter no. 70. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/cred-crunch-newsletter-issue-no-70-april-2023-disasters-year-review-2022
3. Ahrens, J. ve Rudolph, P.M. (2006). The Importance of Governance in Risk Reduction and Disaster Management. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 14 (4), 207-220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5973.2006.00497.x
4. Ak, E. Y., ve Uyurdağ, N. (2024). Afetin Toplumsal Cinsiyet Boyutu: Türkiye'nin Diyarbakır Şehrinde Depremi Yaşayan Kadınlarla İlgili Bir Örnek Olay İncelemesi. Akdeniz Kadın Çalışmaları ve Toplumsal Cinsiyet Dergisi, 7(1), 142-160. https://doi.org/10.33708/ktc.1390146
5. Akbal, A., Taşbaş, S. (2024). Depremde Kadın Olmak: Osmaniye Düziçi Çadır Kent Örneği. Kent Akademi Dergisi, 17(2), 651-666. https://doi.org/10.35674/kent.1425504
6. Aker A.T., Celik F., Boşgelmez Ş. ve Aslan E. (2012). Ruhsal Travma Kavramı ve Travmatik Stres Belirti, Bulgu ve Hastalıkları. Afetlerde Psikososyal Hizmetler Birliği Psikososyal Uygulamalar Eğitimi Kitabı. Türk Kızılayı Yayınları.
7. Aker, A. T. (2006). 1999 Marmara earthquakes a review on epidemiologic findings and community mental health policies. Turk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 17(3), 204-212.
8. Aksaray G., Kortan G., Erkaya H., Yenilmez C., ve Kaptanoğlu C. (2006). Gender differences in psychological effect of the August 1999 earthquake in Turkey. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 60(5), 387-391, https://doi.org/10.1080/08039480600937553

9. Altıparmak, İ. B., & Birel, E. (2024). 6 Şubat 2023 Depremi Sonrasında Sosyal Yaşamın Toplumsal Cinsiyet Bağlamında Değerlendirilmesi: Nurdağı Örneği. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 41(1). https://doi.org/10.32600/huefd.1304991
10. Anastario, M., Shehab, N. ve Lawry, L., (2009). Increased Gender-based Violence Among Women Internally Displaced in Mississippi Two Years Post-Hurrican Katrina. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 3(1), 18-26. https://doi.org/10.1097/DMP.0b013e3181979c32
11. Aprillia, B., Komariyah, I., ve Saleha, E. (2022). Protection of Women in Disaster Emergency Situations; Seven Stages of Participatory Capacity and Vulnerability Analysis. Indonesian Journal of Social Science Research, 3(1), 39-43. https://doi.org/10.11594/ijssr.03.01.05
12. Asia Pacific Forum on Women, Law and Development (2005). Aceh:Tsunami’s Women Survivors Demand Greater Role in Recovery and Reconstruction Efforts. http://www.unifem.org/news_events/story_detail8b3a.html
13. Ashraf, M. A. ve Azad, M. A. K. (2015). Gender Issues In Disaster: Understanding the Relationships Of Vulnerability, Preparedness And Capacity. Environment and Ecology Research, 5(3), 136-142. https://doi.org/10.13189/eer.2015.030504
14. Atozou, B., Mayuto, R., ve Abodohoui, A. (2017). Review on gender and poverty, gender inequality in land tenure, violence against woman and women empowerment analysis: Evidence in Benin with survey data. Journal of Sustainable Development, 10(6), 137-154. https://doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v10n6p137
15. Behrman, J. ve Weitzman, A. (2016). Effects Of the 2010 Haiti Earthquake On Women's Reproductive Health. Studies in Family Planning, 1(47), 3-17. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4465.2016.00045.x
16. Bell, S. ve Folkerth, L. (2016). Women’s Mental Health and Intimate Partner Violence Following Natural Disaster: A Scoping Review. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 6(31), 648-657. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1049023x16000911
17. Birleşmiş Milletler, (2016). Report of the open-ended intergovernmental expert working group on indicators and terminology relating to disaster risk reduction Note - A/71/644. https://www.undrr.org/publication/report-open-ended-intergovernmental-expert-working-group-indicators-and-terminology Birleşmiş Milletler Çocuklara Yardım Fonu [BMÇYF]. (2022). Technical Note Gender in Adolescent Mental Health. https://www.BMÇYF.org/media/134891/file/Global%20Multisectoral%20Operational%20Framework.pdf Birleşmiş Milletler Mülteciler Yüksek Komiserliği (2022). Global Trends 2021. https://www.unhcr.org/media/40152
18. Bradshaw, S. (2004). Socio-economic impacts of natural disasters: a gender analysis. https://repositorio.cepal.org/handle/11362/5596
19. Brown, M., Pazderka, H., Agyapong, V. I. O., Greenshaw, A. J., Cribben, I., Brett-MacLean, P., … Silverstone, P. H. (2021). Mental health symptoms unexpectedly increased in students aged 11–19 years during the 3.5 years after the 2016 fort mcmurray wildfire: findings from 9,376 survey responses. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.676256
20. Brunson, J. (2017). Maternal, Newborn, and Child Health After The 2015 Nepal Earthquakes: An Investigation Of The Long-term Gendered Impacts Of Disasters. Matern Child Health J, 12(21), 2267-2273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-017-2350-8
21. Chew L. ve Ramdas K.N. (2005). Caught in the Storm: The Impact of Natural Disasters on Women. Impact.https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/5596/S045330_en.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
22. Comacchio, C., Antolini, G., Ruggeri, M. ve Colizzi, M. (2022). Gender-oriented mental health prevention: A reappraisal. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(3), 1493. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031493
23. Cutter, S. L. (2017). The forgotten casualties redux: Women, children, and disaster risk. Global environmental change, 42, 117-121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.12.010
24. Cupples, J. (2007). Gender and Hurricane Mitch: Reconstructing Subjectivities After Disaster. Disasters, 2(31), 155-175. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7717.2007.01002.x
25. Dhamija, G., ve Sen, G. (2022). Lasting impact on health from natural disasters, potential mechanisms and mitigating effects. Cambridge Core. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X2200016X
26. Dickson K, Ko SY, Nguyen C, Minchenko D ve Bangpan M (2024). Mental health and psychosocial support programmes for displaced populations in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs): A systematic review of process, perspectives and experiences. Cambridge Prisms: Global Mental Health, 11, e62, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2024.56
27. Drolet, J., Dominelli, L., Alston, M., Ersing, R., Mathbor, G. ve Wu, H. (2015). Women Rebuilding Lives Post-disaster: Innovative Community Practices For Building Resilience and Promoting Sustainable Development. Gender ve Development, 3(23), 433-448. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2015.1096040
28. Dünya Sağlık Örgütü [WHO]. (‎2002)‎. Gender and health in disasters. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/68886
29. Dworkin, S. L. ve Barker, G. (2019). Gender-transformative approaches to engaging men in reducing gender-based violence: a response to Brush & Miller’s “trouble in paradigm”. Violence Against Women, 25(14), 1657-1671. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219872555
30. Eaton, N. R., Keyes, K. M., Krueger, R. F., Balsis, S., Skodol, A. E., Markon, K. E., … Hasin, D. S. (2012). An invariant dimensional liability model of gender differences in mental disorder prevalence: evidence from a national sample.. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121(1), 282-288. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024780
31. Echendu, A. J. (2021). Women, Development, and Flooding Disaster Research In Nigeria: A Scoping Review. EESRJ, 4(8), 147-152. https://doi.org/10.18280/eesrj.080401
32. Enarson, E. ve Morrow, B. H. (1998). Why gender? Why women? An introduction to women and disaster, E. Enarson, B. Morrow (Der.), içinde, The Gendered Terrain of Disaster. Through Women's Eyes (s. 1-8). Westport CT: Praeger Press.
33. Erbaydar, N. P., İnal, E., & Kaya, E. (2018). Afet Mevzuatının Toplumsal Cinsiyet Açısından İncelenmesi. Paradigma Akademi yayıncılık.
34. Fatema, S., Islam, M., East, L. ve Usher, K. (2019). Women’s Health-related Vulnerabilities In Natural Disasters: a Systematic Review Protocol. BMJ Open, 12(9), e032079. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-032079
35. Fatema, S., Rice, K., Rock, A., Islam, M., East, L. ve Usher, K. (2023). Physical and Mental Health Status Of Women In Disaster-affected Areas In Bangladesh. Natural Hazards. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-023-05964-5
36. Fatema, S. R., East, L., Islam, M. S. ve Usher, K. (2021). Health impact and risk factors affecting south and southeast asian women following natural disasters: a systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(21), 11068. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111068
37. First, J. M., First, N. L. ve Houston, J. B. (2017). Intimate partner violence and disasters. Affilia, 32(3), 390-403. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109917706338
38. Fisher, S. (2010). Violence Against Women and Natural Disasters: Findings From Post-Tsunami Sri Lanka. Violence Against Women, 16(8), 902–918. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801210377649
39. Fouillet, A., Rey, G., Laurent, F., Pavillon, G., Bellec, S., Guihenneuc-Jouyaux, C., ... & Hémon, D. (2006). Excess mortality related to the August 2003 heat wave in France. International archives of occupational and environmental health, 80, 16-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-006-0089-4
40. Giarratano, G., Barcelona, V., Savage, J. ve Harville, E. W. (2019). Mental health and worries of pregnant women living through disaster recovery. Health Care for Women International, 40(3), 259-277. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2018.1535600
41. Ginige, K., Amaratunga, D. Ve Haigh, R. (2009). Mainstreaming Gender In Disaster Reduction: Why and How?. Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal, 1(18), 23-34. https://doi.org/10.1108/09653560910938510
42. Goldmann, E. ve Galea, S. (2014). Mental health consequences of disasters. Annual Review of Public Health, 35(1), 169-183. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182435 Hackett, R. A., Steptoe, A. ve Jackson, S. E. (2019). Sex discrimination and mental health in women: A prospective analysis. Health Psychology, 38(11), 1014-1024. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000796
43. Hallegatte, S., Vogt-Schilb, A., Rozenberg, J., Bangalore, M., ve Beaudet, C. (2020). From poverty to disaster and back: A review of the literature. Economics of Disasters and Climate Change, 4, 223-247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-020-00060-5
44. Hamidazada, M., Cruz, A. C. R. ve Yokomatsu, M. (2019). Vulnerability Factors Of Afghan Rural Women To Disasters. Int J Disaster Risk Sci, 4(10), 573-590. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-019-00227-z
45. Harville, E., Xiong, X. ve Buekens, P. (2010). Disasters and Perinatal Health: A Systematic Review. Obstetrical ve Gynecological Survey, 11(65), 713-728. https://doi.org/10.1097/ogx.0b013e31820eddbe
46. Ikeda, K. (1995). Gender differences in human loss and vulnerability in natural disasters: a case study from Bangladesh. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 2(2), 171-193.
47. Ilgın, H. Ö., & Karagül, D. (2022). Afet süreçlerinde kadınlara yönelik toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliğinde sivil toplum kuruluşu çalışanlarının deneyimleri: Çanakkale ili örneği. JOEEP: Journal of Emerging Economies and Policy, 7(2), 85-103.
48. Jafari, H., Heidari, M., Heidari, S. ve Sayfouri, N. (2020). Risk Factors For Suicidal Behaviours After Natural Disasters: a Systematic Review. MJMS, 3(27), 20-33. https://doi.org/10.21315/mjms2020.27.3.3
49. Jayarathne, A. H. ve Babu, V. S. (2017). Socio–cultural Factors Influencing Women To Be More Vulnerable In Natural Disasters: a Qualitative Review On Tamil Nadu State. IJARS, 11(6). https://doi.org/10.20908/ijars.v6i11.10429
50. Kar, N. (2010). Indian research on disaster and mental health. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 52(1) 286–290. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.69254
51. Karahan, Ö. (2023). Altı Şubat 2023 Kahramanmaraş Merkezli Depremlerde Bir Çadırkentte Acil Afet Yönetimi: Gözlemler ve Deneyimler. Sosyal Bilimler ve Sağlık Bülteni, 6, 56-67.
52. Kawachi, I. ve Berkman, L. (2000). Social ties and mental health. Journal of Urban Health, 78, 458-467. https://doi.org/10.1093/jurban/78.3.458
53. Kessler, R., Sonnega, A. ve Bromet, E. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048-1060.
54. Khalid, Z., Meng, X. ve Khalid, A. (2021). A Qualitative Insight Into Gendered Vulnerabilities: a Case Study Of The Shishper Glof In Hunza Valley, Pakistan. Sustainability, 16(13), 8798. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13168798
55. Koç B., Şahin E., Şener A. E, Yıldız Ö. ve Yüksel B. (2013). Afetlerde Kadın Sağlığına Toplumsal Cinsiyet Yaklaşımı. http://tip.baskent.edu.tr/egitim/mezuniyetoncesi/calismagrp/ogrsmpzsnm14/14.P13.pdf
56. Kreutzer, W. (2022). Women’s Support Shaken: A Study of Women’s Political Trust after Natural Disasters. Politics and gender, 19(3), 703-733. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X22000289
57. Kuruluşlar-arası Daimi Komite [IASC]. (2007). IASC Guidelines on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings. https://interagencystandingcommittee.org/sites/default/files/migrated/2020-11/IASC%20Guidelines%20on%20Mental%20Health%20and%20Psychosocial%20Support%20in%20Emergency%20Settings%20%28English%29.pdf
58. Lafrenière, J., Sweetman, C. ve Thylin, T. (2019). Introduction: gender, humanitarian action and crisis response. Gender & Development, 27(2), 187-201. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2019.1634332
59. Loewen, S., Pinchoff, J., Ngo, T. D., ve Hindin, M. J. (2022). The impact of natural disasters and epidemics on sexual and reproductive health in low‐and middle‐income countries: a narrative synthesis. International Journal of Gynecology ve Obstetrics, 157(1), 11-18. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijgo.13768
60. Lowe S.R., Bonumwezi J.L., Valdespino-Hayden Z. ve Galea S. (2019) Posttraumatic stress and depression in the aftermath of environmental disasters: a review of quantitative studies published in 2018. Curr Environ Heal reports. 6, 344–60. https://10.1007/s40572-019-00245-5
61. Maknun, S. S., Nahar, N. ve Kabir, H. (2017). Women Health and Menstrual Hygiene Management In Natural Disasters: A Study In Islampur Upazila Of Jamalpur District. J. Asiat. Soc. Bangladesh, Sci., 1(43), 83-99. https://doi.org/10.3329/jasbs.v43i1.46248
62. Mao, W. ve Agyapong, V. I. O. (2021). The Role Of Social Determinants In Mental Health and Resilience After Disasters: Implications For Public Health Policy And Practice. Front. Public Health, 9, 658528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.658528
63. Mathias, K. ve Hirdes, J. P. (2015). Gender differences in the rate of restriction to room among ontario forensic patients. Healthcare Management Forum, 28(4), 157-162. https://doi.org/10.1177/0840470415581232
64. McKinnon, S. J. (2022). Masculinities and Disaster. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Natural Hazard Science. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389407.013.387
65. McKinzie, A. E. ve Clay-Warner, J. (2021). The gendered effect of disasters on mental health: a systematic review. International Journal of Mass Emergencies &Amp; Disasters, 39(2), 227-262. https://doi.org/10.1177/028072702103900202
66. Humphreys, C., Hegarty, K., Kellett, C., … ve Forbes, D. (2019). Interpersonal Violence and Mental Health Outcomes Following Disaster. BJPsych open, 1(6). https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2019.82 Murphy, M., Ellsberg, M., Balogun, A. ve Garcia-Moreno, C. (2022). Risk and protective factors for violence against women and girls living in conflict and natural disaster-affected settings: a systematic review. Trauma, Violence, &Amp; Abuse, 24(5), 3328-3345. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221129303
67. Nahar, N., Blomstedt, Y., Wu, B., Kandarina, I., Trisnantoro, L. ve Kinsman, J. (2014). Increasing the provision of mental health care for vulnerable, disaster-affected people in Bangladesh. BMC Public Health, 14, 708. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-708
68. Naz, F. ve Saqib, S. E. (2021). Gender-based Differences In Flood Vulnerability Among Men and Women In The Char Farming Households Of Bangladesh. Nat Hazards, 1(106), 655-677. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-020-04482-y
69. Neumayer E. ve Plumper T. (2007). The Gendered Nature of Natural Disasters: The Impact of Catastrophic Events on the Gender Gap in Life Expectancy 1981-2002. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 97 (3), 551-566. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.2007.00563.x
70. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. ve Morrow, J. (1991). A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 115–121.
71. Norris, F. H., Friedman, M. J., Watson, P. J., Byrne, C. M., Diaz, E. ve Kaniasty, K. (2002). 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part 1. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981-2001. Psychiatry, 65, 207-239.
72. North C.S., Nixon S.J., Shariat S, Mallonee S., McMillen J.C., Spitznagel E.L., vd (1999): Psychiatric disorders among survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. JAMA, 282(8), 755–762. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.282.8.755
73. Ojeda, V. D. ve Bergstresser, S. M. (2008). Gender, race-ethnicity, and psychosocial barriers to mental health care: an examination of perceptions and attitudes among adults reporting unmet need. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49(3), 317-334. https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650804900306
74. Okay, N., ve Ilkkaracan, I. (2018). Toplumsal Cinsiyete Duyarlı Afet Risk Yönetimi. Resilience, 1(2), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.32569/resilience.431075
75. Olson, A., Naevestad, T., Orru, K., Nero, K., Schieffelers, A. ve Meyer, S. F. (2023). The Impact Of the Covid-19 Pandemic On Socially Marginalised Women: Material And Mental Health Outcomes. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 93, 103739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.103739
76. Oxfam International. (2005). The tsunami’s impact on women. https://policy-practice.oxfam.org/resources/the-tsunamis-impact-on-women-115038/
77. Parkinson, D. (2017). Investigating the Increase In Domestic Violence Post Disaster: An Australian Case Study. J Interpers Violence, 11(34), 2333-2362. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517696876
78. Patel, V., Kirkwood, B., Pednekar, S., Pereira, B., Barros, P., Fernandes, J., … Mabey, D. (2006). Gender disadvantage and reproductive health risk factors for common mental disorders in women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(4), 404-413. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.63.4.404
79. Pederson, A., Greaves, L. ve Poole, N. (2015). Gender-transformative health promotion for women: a framework for action. Health promotion international, 30(1), 140-150. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/dau083
80. Percival, V., Dusabe-Richards, E., Wurie, H., Namakula, J., Ssali, S. ve Theobald, S. (2018). Are health systems interventions gender blind? examining health system reconstruction in conflict affected states. Global Health, 14, 90, 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-018-0401-6
81. Peterson, K. (2007). WHITE PAPER: Reaching Out to Women When Disaster Strikes. https://sitahoesierra.org/abstracts/Reaching%20out%20to%20Women%20when%20Disaster%20Strikes.pdf
82. Pike, A., Mikolas, C., Tompkins, K., Olson, J., Olson, D. ve Brémault-Phillips, S. (2022). New Life Through Disaster: a Thematic Analysis Of Women's Experiences Of Pregnancy And The 2016 Fort Mcmurray Wildfire. Front. Public Health, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.725256
83. Pincha C. (2009). Toplumsal Cinsiyete Duyarlı Afet Yönetimi: Uygulamacılar İçin El Kitabı. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Yayınları.
84. Previdi, I., Welton, M., Rivera, J., Watkins, D., Díaz, Z., Torres, H., … ve Vega, C. (2022). The Impact Of Natural Disasters On Maternal Health: Hurricanes Irma and María In Puerto Rico. Children, 7(9), 940. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9070940
85. Pulcino, T., Galea, S., Ahern, J., Resnick, H., Foley, M. ve Vlahov, D. (2003). Posttraumatic stress in women after the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. Journal of Women's Health, 12, 809-820. https://doi.org/10.1089/154099903322447774
86. Rahman, M. S. (2013). Climate Change, Disaster and Gender Vulnerability: A Study On Two Divisions Of Bangladesh. AJHE, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.11634/216796221302315
87. Reid, M. (2013). Disasters and Social Inequalities. Sociology Compass, 11(7), 984-997. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12080
88. Samora, P. R. (2023). Disaster Management In Brazil: Innovation Through the Gender Perspective. Cad. Metrop., 56(25), 205-228. https://doi.org/10.1590/2236-9996.2023-5609.e
89. SAMSHA. (2014). Trauma-informed care in behavioral health services. https://www.refugees.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/sma14-4816.pdf Samuels, F., Jones, N., ve Hamad, B. (2017). Psychosocial support for adolescent girls in post-conflict settings: beyond a health systems approach. Health Policy and Planning, 32(suppl_5), v40-v51. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czx127
90. Schumacher, J. A., Coffey, S. F., Norris, F. H., Tracy, M., Clements, K., ve Galea, S. (2010). Intimate partner violence and Hurricane Katrina: predictors and associated mental health outcomes. Violence and victims, 25(5), 588-603. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.25.5.588
91. Shi, W., Navario, P., ve Hall, B. J. (2022). Prioritising mental health and psychosocial services in relief and recovery efforts in ukraine. The Lancet Psychiatry, 9(6), e27. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(22)00114-6
92. Sri, A. S., Das, P., Gnanapragasam, S., ve Persaud, A (2021). COVID-19 and the violence against women and girls: ‘The shadow pandemic’. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 67(8), 971– 973. https://doi.org/10.1177/00207640219955
93. Şalcıoglu, E., Basoglu, M., ve Livanou, M. (2007). Post‐traumatic stress disorder and comorbid depression among survivors of the 1999 earthquake in Turkey. Disasters, 31(2), 115-129. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0361-3666.2007.01000.x
94. Vigod, S. N. ve Rochon, P. A. (2020). The impact of gender discrimination on a woman's mental health. EClinicalMedicine, 20, 100311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100311
95. Wayment, H. (2004). It could have been me: Vicarious victims and disaster-focused distress. Personality ve Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(4), 515-528. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203261892
96. Weems, C. F., Pina, A. A., Costa, N. M., Watts, S. E., Taylor, L. E. ve Cannon, M. F. (2007). Pre-disaster trait anxiety and negative affect predict posttraumatic stress in youth after hurricane Katrina. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(1), 154- 159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.75.1.154
97. Yilmaz, V. (2004). A statistical analysis of the effects on survivors of the 1999 earthquake in Turkey. Social Behavior ve Personality, 34(1), 551-558. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2004.32.6.551