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THE RISING POPULIST THREAT: THE SHADOW OF FASCISM IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTRUY

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 16 Sayı: 56, 879 - 909, 31.07.2021
https://doi.org/10.14783/maruoneri.827835

Öz

Today, the shadow of fascism becomes more evident in the rapid spread of populist political movements in different regions, especially in Europe. Within the framework of the contextual analysis method, shored up by the incorporated comparison, this article aims at highlighting the danger that humanity faces by revealing the commonalities between contemporary populism and its fascist ancestors. While the external conditions, such as economic problems, social resentment, and political despair underscores the similarities that set the ground for the emergence of fascist and populist regimes in different eras, tendencies, such as anti-elitism, majoritarianism, revisionism, and anti-democracy draw attention to their shared practices and methods, uncovering the direct link between them. Analyzing the looming two-dimensional danger resulted from the proliferation of populist governments necessarily entails the examination of the substantial ramifications of their fascist predecessors on both national and international scales. This study, carried out from a comparative perspective, deals with the threat faced by liberal democracy and the liberal international order through historical phenomena. In the twenty-first century, fascism is resurrected in the guise of populism nurtured by right-wing tendencies and continues to attack and undermine the same targets with the same determination it once had. Overlooking this fact would mean repeating the same mistakes and ultimately lead to similar consequences.

Kaynakça

  • Acemoğlu, D. (2020). Trump won’t be the last American populist. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2020-11-06/trump-wont-be-last-american-populist adresinden alındı.
  • Agostinone-Wilson, F. (2020). Enough already! A socialist feminist response to the re-emergence of right-wing populism and fascism in media. Leiden: Brill Sense.
  • Akkerman, T. (2003). Populism and democracy: Challenge or pathology? Acta Politica, 38, 147-159. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.ap.5500021
  • Albright, M. (2019). Fascism: A Warning. London: William Collins.
  • Applebaum, A. (2020). Twilight of democracy: The seductive lure of authoritarianism. EPUB. New York: Doubleday.
  • Apter, D. E. (2006). Duchamp’s urinal: Who says what’s rational when things get tough? Goodin, R. E., & Tilly C. (Eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Contextual Political Analysis. (ss.767-796). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Bauman, Z. (1997). Modernite ve holocaust. İstanbul: Sarmal Yayınevi.
  • Berman, S. (2016). Populism is not fascism: But it could be a harbinger. Foreign Affairs, 95(6), 39-45.
  • Bugaric, B. (2019). The two faces of populism: Between authoritarian and democratic populism. German Law Journal, 20, 390-400. doi: 10.1017/glj.2019.20
  • Cambridge Dictionary. (2020). Populism.https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/populism adresinden alındı.
  • Canovan, M. (1981). Populism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • CNCDH. (2002). La lutte contre le racisme et la xenophobie : Rapport d’activite 2001. (La Commission Nationale Consultative des Droits de l’Homme/2001 7-617). Paris : La Documentation Française. https://www.vie-publique.fr/sites/default/files/rapport/pdf/034000129.pdf adresinden alındı.
  • Collier, R. B. (2001). Populism. Smelser, N. J. &. Baltes, P. B. (Eds.) International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences. (ss.11813-11816). Oxford: Pergamon.
  • Collier, R. B., & Mazzuca, S. (2006). Does history repeat? Goodin, R. E. & Tilly C. (Eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Contextual Political Analysis. (ss.472-489). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • De Sardan, J. P. O. (2015). Epistemology, fieldwork, and anthropology. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Dodson, M., & Dorraj, M. (2008). Populism and foreign policy in Venezuela and Iran. The Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations, 9(1), 71-87.
  • Eco, U. (1995). Ur-Fascism: Freedom and liberation are an unending task. The New York Review. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1995/06/22/ur-fascism/ adresinden alındı.
  • Fârte, G. I. (2017). On the integration of populism into the democratic public sphere. Argumentum. Journal of the Seminar of Discursive Logic, Argumentation Theory and Rhetoric, 15(2), 87-109.
  • Finchelstein, F. (2017). From fascism to populism in history. EPUB. California: University of California Press.
  • Freedom House (2019). Freedom in the world: Democracy in retreat. Freedom House. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2019/democracy-retreat adresinden alındı.
  • Gentile, E. (2004). Qu'est-ce que le fascisme? Histoire et interprétation. Paris : Gallimard.
  • Gentile, E. (2006). Fascisme, totalitarisme et religion politique : Définitions et réflexions critiques sur les critiques d'une interprétation. Raisons politiques, 22(2), 119-173. doi: 10.3917/rai.022.0119
  • Grenville, J. A. S. (1994). A history of the world in the twentieth century. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
  • Guirlando, P. (2020). Populist foreign policy: The case of Italy. Canadian Foreign Policy Journal. doi: 10.1080/11926422.2020.1819357
  • Gürcan, E. C. (2019). Multipolarization, south–south cooperation, and the rise of post-hegemonic governance. New York: Routledge.
  • Harrison, K., & Boyd T. (2018). Understanding political ideas and movements. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
  • Hermet, G. (1997). Populisme et nationalisme. Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'histoire, 4(56), 34-47.
  • Hobsbawm, E. (2015). Kısa 20. Yüzyıl: 1914-1991 Aşırılıklar Çağı. İstanbul: Everest Yayınları.
  • Ikenberry, G. J. (2018). The end of liberal international order? International Affairs, 94(1), 7-23.
  • Ionescu, G., & Gellner, E. (Eds.). (1969). Populism: Its meaning and national characteristics. New York: Macmillan.
  • Iversen, G. R. (1991). Contextual analysis. London: SAGE Publications.
  • Laclau, E. (2005). On populist reason. London: Verso Books.
  • Lanzone, M. E., & Morini, M. (2017). Populists in power: From municipalities to (European) parliament, the case of the Italian five star movement. Chinese Political Science Review, 2(3), 395-409.
  • Larsen, S. U., Hagtvet, B., & Myklebust, J. P. (Eds.). (1980). Who were the fascists: Social roots of European fascism Bergen: Universitetsforlaget; Irvington-on-Hudson, NY: Columbia University Press.
  • Le Moal, F. (2018). Histoire du fascisme. Paris: Perrin.
  • Lee, S. J. (2014). Avrupa tarihinden kesitler, 1789-1980. Ankara: Dost Kitabevi Yayınları.
  • Levi, P. (2005). The black hole of Auschwitz. (Der. Marco Belpoliti). Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Manucci, L. (2020). Populism and collective memory: Comparing fascist legacies in western Europe. London: Routledge.
  • Mastropaolo, A. (2001). Populisme du peuple ou populisme des élites? Critique Internationale, 4(13), 61-67.
  • Maurer, P. & Diehl T. (2020). What kind of populism? Tone and targets in the Twitter discourse of French and American presidential candidates. European Journal of Communication, 35(5), 453-468. doi: 10.1177/0267323120909288
  • Mazower, M. (2003). Karanlık kita Avrupa’nın 20. yüzyılı. İstanbul: Alfa Yayınları.
  • Mazzoleni, G. (2008). Populism and the media. Albertazzi, D., & McDonnell, D. (Eds.). Twenty-First Century Populism. (ss.49-64). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • McMichael, P. (1990). Incorporating comparison within a world-historical perspective: An alternative comparative method. American Sociological Review, 55(3), 385- 397.
  • Mény, Y., & Surel Y. (2002). The constitutive ambiguity of populism. Mény, Y., & Surel Y. (Eds.). Democracies and the Populist Challenge. (ss.1-21). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Mény, Y. & Surel Y. (Eds.). (2002). Democracies and the populist challenge. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Merriman, J. (2018). Modern Avrupa tarihi. İstanbul: Say Yayınları.
  • Milza, P. (1997). Mussolini entre fascisme et populisme. Vingtieme Siecle. Revue d'Histoire, 4(56), 115-120. doi: 10.2307/3770603
  • Milza, P., & Berstein, S. (1980). Le fascisme italien, 1919-1945. Paris: Seuil.
  • Morgan, P. (2003). Fascism in Europe, 1919-1945. New York: Routledge.
  • Mosse, G. L. (1966). Introduction: The genesis of fascism. Journal of Contemporary History, 1(1), 14-26.
  • Mouffe, C. (2018). Pour Un populisme de gauche. Paris: Albin Michel.
  • Mouffe, C., & Laclau, E. (2017). Hegemonya ve sosyalist strateji: Radikal demokratik bir politikaya doğru. (Kardam, A. Çev.). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
  • Mudde, C. (2004). The populist zeitgeist. Government and opposition: An international journal of comparative politics, 39(4), 541-563.
  • Mudde, C. (2007). Populist radical right parties in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Mudde, C. (2013). Three decades of populist radical right parties in Western Europe: So what? European Journal of Political Research, 52(1), 1-19.
  • Mudde, C. (2016). Europe's populist surge: A long time in the making. Foreign Affairs, 95(6), 25-30.
  • Müller, J-M. (2016). What is populism? Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Ostiguy, P. (2017). Populism: A socio-cultural approach. Kaltwasser, C., Taggart, P., & Ostiguy. P. (Eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Populism. (ss.73-97). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Palmer, R. R., & Colton, J. (1995). A History of the modern world. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
  • Panizza, F., & Miorelli, R. (2009). Populism and democracy in Latin America. Ethics & International Affairs, 23(1), 39-46. doi: 10.1111/j.1747-7093.2009.00188.x
  • Pasquino, G. (2008). Populism and democracy. Albertazzi, D. & McDonnell, D. (Eds.). Twenty-First Century Populism. (ss.15-29). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Paxton, R. O. (2004). The Anatomy of Fascism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
  • Plagemann, J., & Destradi, S. (2019). Populism and foreign policy: The case of India. Foreign Policy Analysis, 15(2), 283-301.
  • Pugliese, S. (2016). A specter haunting America: Trump and Italian fascism. La Voce di New York. https://www.lavocedinewyork.com/en/2016/11/20/a-specter-haunting-america-trump-and-italian-fascism/ adresinden alındı.
  • Roberts, J. M. (2015). Avrupa tarihi. İstanbul: İnkılap Kitabevi.
  • Rousseau, J. J. (1996). Du contrat social. Paris: LGF.
  • Roux, G. (2008). Xénophobie, «cultures politiques» et théories de la menace. Revue Française de Science Politique, 58(1), 69-95.
  • Schmitt, C. (1988). The crisis of parliamentary democracy. Massachusetts: MIT Press.
  • Snyder, T. (2010). Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. New York: Basic Books.
  • Taguieff, P. A. (2002). L’Illusion populiste : De l’archaïque au mediatique. Paris: Berg International.
  • The Economist (2020). Democracy index 2019: A year of democratic setbacks and popular protest. https://www.in.gr/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Democracy-Index-2019.pdf adresinden alındı.
  • Traverso, E. (2019). The new faces of fascism: Populism and the far right. EPUB. New York: Verso.
  • Vaccara, S. (2011). Quale ruolo per le élite d’Italia? La Voce di New York. https://www.lavocedinewyork.com/people/2011/11/27/lintervista-quale-ruolo-per-le-elite-ditalia/ adresinden alındı.
  • Weyland, K. (2001). Clarifying a contested concept: Populism in the study of Latin American politics. Comparative Politics, 34(1), 1-22.

YÜKSELEN POPÜLİZM TEHDİDİ: YİRMİ BİRİNCİ YÜZYILDA FAŞİZMİN GÖLGESİ

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 16 Sayı: 56, 879 - 909, 31.07.2021
https://doi.org/10.14783/maruoneri.827835

Öz

Günümüzde faşizmin gölgesi, başta Avrupa olmak üzere farklı bölgelerde hızla yayılmakta olan popülist hareketler aracılığıyla gittikçe belirginleşmektedir. Bu makale, birleştirilmiş karşılaştırma ile desteklenen bağlamsal siyasi analiz yöntemiyle günümüz popülizmi ile faşist ataları arasındaki ortaklıkları ortaya koyarak, insanlığın karşı karşıya olduğu tehlikeyi vurgulamayı amaçlamaktadır. Ekonomik sorunlar, toplumsal memnuniyetsizlik ve umutsuzluk gibi çevresel koşullar faşist ve popülist rejimlerin farklı zamanlarda içerisine doğdukları çevrelerdeki benzerliklere işaret ederken, elitizm karşıtlığı, çoğunlukçuluk, revizyonizm ve demokrasi karşıtlığı gibi eğilimler, bu yönetimlerin genel uygulama ve yöntemlerindeki ortaklıkları vurgular, bu hareketler arasındaki doğrudan bağı tarihsel bir düzleme yerleştirir. Popülist yönetimlerin güçlenerek çoğalmasıyla yaklaşan iki boyutlu tehlikeyi analiz edebilmek de ancak geçmişteki faşist öncüllerinin ulusal ve uluslararası ölçekte yarattığı derin etkileri incelemekle mümkündür. Karşılaştırmalı bir perspektiften gerçekleştirilen bu çalışma, bugün liberal demokrasinin ve liberal uluslararası sistemin yüz yüze geldiği tehdidi, geçmişte karşılaşılan olay ve olgular üzerinden incelemektedir. Yirmi birinci yüzyılda faşizm, aşırı sağ eğilimlerden beslenen popülizm kılığında tekrar dünyaya gelmiştir ve yüz yıl önceki hedeflerine aynı kararlılıkla saldırmaya devam etmektedir. Bu gerçeğin gözden kaçması, aynı hataların tekrarlanması anlamına gelecek ve benzer sonuçların doğmasına yol açacaktır.

Kaynakça

  • Acemoğlu, D. (2020). Trump won’t be the last American populist. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2020-11-06/trump-wont-be-last-american-populist adresinden alındı.
  • Agostinone-Wilson, F. (2020). Enough already! A socialist feminist response to the re-emergence of right-wing populism and fascism in media. Leiden: Brill Sense.
  • Akkerman, T. (2003). Populism and democracy: Challenge or pathology? Acta Politica, 38, 147-159. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.ap.5500021
  • Albright, M. (2019). Fascism: A Warning. London: William Collins.
  • Applebaum, A. (2020). Twilight of democracy: The seductive lure of authoritarianism. EPUB. New York: Doubleday.
  • Apter, D. E. (2006). Duchamp’s urinal: Who says what’s rational when things get tough? Goodin, R. E., & Tilly C. (Eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Contextual Political Analysis. (ss.767-796). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Bauman, Z. (1997). Modernite ve holocaust. İstanbul: Sarmal Yayınevi.
  • Berman, S. (2016). Populism is not fascism: But it could be a harbinger. Foreign Affairs, 95(6), 39-45.
  • Bugaric, B. (2019). The two faces of populism: Between authoritarian and democratic populism. German Law Journal, 20, 390-400. doi: 10.1017/glj.2019.20
  • Cambridge Dictionary. (2020). Populism.https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/populism adresinden alındı.
  • Canovan, M. (1981). Populism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • CNCDH. (2002). La lutte contre le racisme et la xenophobie : Rapport d’activite 2001. (La Commission Nationale Consultative des Droits de l’Homme/2001 7-617). Paris : La Documentation Française. https://www.vie-publique.fr/sites/default/files/rapport/pdf/034000129.pdf adresinden alındı.
  • Collier, R. B. (2001). Populism. Smelser, N. J. &. Baltes, P. B. (Eds.) International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences. (ss.11813-11816). Oxford: Pergamon.
  • Collier, R. B., & Mazzuca, S. (2006). Does history repeat? Goodin, R. E. & Tilly C. (Eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Contextual Political Analysis. (ss.472-489). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • De Sardan, J. P. O. (2015). Epistemology, fieldwork, and anthropology. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Dodson, M., & Dorraj, M. (2008). Populism and foreign policy in Venezuela and Iran. The Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations, 9(1), 71-87.
  • Eco, U. (1995). Ur-Fascism: Freedom and liberation are an unending task. The New York Review. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1995/06/22/ur-fascism/ adresinden alındı.
  • Fârte, G. I. (2017). On the integration of populism into the democratic public sphere. Argumentum. Journal of the Seminar of Discursive Logic, Argumentation Theory and Rhetoric, 15(2), 87-109.
  • Finchelstein, F. (2017). From fascism to populism in history. EPUB. California: University of California Press.
  • Freedom House (2019). Freedom in the world: Democracy in retreat. Freedom House. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2019/democracy-retreat adresinden alındı.
  • Gentile, E. (2004). Qu'est-ce que le fascisme? Histoire et interprétation. Paris : Gallimard.
  • Gentile, E. (2006). Fascisme, totalitarisme et religion politique : Définitions et réflexions critiques sur les critiques d'une interprétation. Raisons politiques, 22(2), 119-173. doi: 10.3917/rai.022.0119
  • Grenville, J. A. S. (1994). A history of the world in the twentieth century. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
  • Guirlando, P. (2020). Populist foreign policy: The case of Italy. Canadian Foreign Policy Journal. doi: 10.1080/11926422.2020.1819357
  • Gürcan, E. C. (2019). Multipolarization, south–south cooperation, and the rise of post-hegemonic governance. New York: Routledge.
  • Harrison, K., & Boyd T. (2018). Understanding political ideas and movements. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
  • Hermet, G. (1997). Populisme et nationalisme. Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'histoire, 4(56), 34-47.
  • Hobsbawm, E. (2015). Kısa 20. Yüzyıl: 1914-1991 Aşırılıklar Çağı. İstanbul: Everest Yayınları.
  • Ikenberry, G. J. (2018). The end of liberal international order? International Affairs, 94(1), 7-23.
  • Ionescu, G., & Gellner, E. (Eds.). (1969). Populism: Its meaning and national characteristics. New York: Macmillan.
  • Iversen, G. R. (1991). Contextual analysis. London: SAGE Publications.
  • Laclau, E. (2005). On populist reason. London: Verso Books.
  • Lanzone, M. E., & Morini, M. (2017). Populists in power: From municipalities to (European) parliament, the case of the Italian five star movement. Chinese Political Science Review, 2(3), 395-409.
  • Larsen, S. U., Hagtvet, B., & Myklebust, J. P. (Eds.). (1980). Who were the fascists: Social roots of European fascism Bergen: Universitetsforlaget; Irvington-on-Hudson, NY: Columbia University Press.
  • Le Moal, F. (2018). Histoire du fascisme. Paris: Perrin.
  • Lee, S. J. (2014). Avrupa tarihinden kesitler, 1789-1980. Ankara: Dost Kitabevi Yayınları.
  • Levi, P. (2005). The black hole of Auschwitz. (Der. Marco Belpoliti). Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Manucci, L. (2020). Populism and collective memory: Comparing fascist legacies in western Europe. London: Routledge.
  • Mastropaolo, A. (2001). Populisme du peuple ou populisme des élites? Critique Internationale, 4(13), 61-67.
  • Maurer, P. & Diehl T. (2020). What kind of populism? Tone and targets in the Twitter discourse of French and American presidential candidates. European Journal of Communication, 35(5), 453-468. doi: 10.1177/0267323120909288
  • Mazower, M. (2003). Karanlık kita Avrupa’nın 20. yüzyılı. İstanbul: Alfa Yayınları.
  • Mazzoleni, G. (2008). Populism and the media. Albertazzi, D., & McDonnell, D. (Eds.). Twenty-First Century Populism. (ss.49-64). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • McMichael, P. (1990). Incorporating comparison within a world-historical perspective: An alternative comparative method. American Sociological Review, 55(3), 385- 397.
  • Mény, Y., & Surel Y. (2002). The constitutive ambiguity of populism. Mény, Y., & Surel Y. (Eds.). Democracies and the Populist Challenge. (ss.1-21). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Mény, Y. & Surel Y. (Eds.). (2002). Democracies and the populist challenge. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Merriman, J. (2018). Modern Avrupa tarihi. İstanbul: Say Yayınları.
  • Milza, P. (1997). Mussolini entre fascisme et populisme. Vingtieme Siecle. Revue d'Histoire, 4(56), 115-120. doi: 10.2307/3770603
  • Milza, P., & Berstein, S. (1980). Le fascisme italien, 1919-1945. Paris: Seuil.
  • Morgan, P. (2003). Fascism in Europe, 1919-1945. New York: Routledge.
  • Mosse, G. L. (1966). Introduction: The genesis of fascism. Journal of Contemporary History, 1(1), 14-26.
  • Mouffe, C. (2018). Pour Un populisme de gauche. Paris: Albin Michel.
  • Mouffe, C., & Laclau, E. (2017). Hegemonya ve sosyalist strateji: Radikal demokratik bir politikaya doğru. (Kardam, A. Çev.). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
  • Mudde, C. (2004). The populist zeitgeist. Government and opposition: An international journal of comparative politics, 39(4), 541-563.
  • Mudde, C. (2007). Populist radical right parties in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Mudde, C. (2013). Three decades of populist radical right parties in Western Europe: So what? European Journal of Political Research, 52(1), 1-19.
  • Mudde, C. (2016). Europe's populist surge: A long time in the making. Foreign Affairs, 95(6), 25-30.
  • Müller, J-M. (2016). What is populism? Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Ostiguy, P. (2017). Populism: A socio-cultural approach. Kaltwasser, C., Taggart, P., & Ostiguy. P. (Eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Populism. (ss.73-97). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Palmer, R. R., & Colton, J. (1995). A History of the modern world. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
  • Panizza, F., & Miorelli, R. (2009). Populism and democracy in Latin America. Ethics & International Affairs, 23(1), 39-46. doi: 10.1111/j.1747-7093.2009.00188.x
  • Pasquino, G. (2008). Populism and democracy. Albertazzi, D. & McDonnell, D. (Eds.). Twenty-First Century Populism. (ss.15-29). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Paxton, R. O. (2004). The Anatomy of Fascism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
  • Plagemann, J., & Destradi, S. (2019). Populism and foreign policy: The case of India. Foreign Policy Analysis, 15(2), 283-301.
  • Pugliese, S. (2016). A specter haunting America: Trump and Italian fascism. La Voce di New York. https://www.lavocedinewyork.com/en/2016/11/20/a-specter-haunting-america-trump-and-italian-fascism/ adresinden alındı.
  • Roberts, J. M. (2015). Avrupa tarihi. İstanbul: İnkılap Kitabevi.
  • Rousseau, J. J. (1996). Du contrat social. Paris: LGF.
  • Roux, G. (2008). Xénophobie, «cultures politiques» et théories de la menace. Revue Française de Science Politique, 58(1), 69-95.
  • Schmitt, C. (1988). The crisis of parliamentary democracy. Massachusetts: MIT Press.
  • Snyder, T. (2010). Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. New York: Basic Books.
  • Taguieff, P. A. (2002). L’Illusion populiste : De l’archaïque au mediatique. Paris: Berg International.
  • The Economist (2020). Democracy index 2019: A year of democratic setbacks and popular protest. https://www.in.gr/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Democracy-Index-2019.pdf adresinden alındı.
  • Traverso, E. (2019). The new faces of fascism: Populism and the far right. EPUB. New York: Verso.
  • Vaccara, S. (2011). Quale ruolo per le élite d’Italia? La Voce di New York. https://www.lavocedinewyork.com/people/2011/11/27/lintervista-quale-ruolo-per-le-elite-ditalia/ adresinden alındı.
  • Weyland, K. (2001). Clarifying a contested concept: Populism in the study of Latin American politics. Comparative Politics, 34(1), 1-22.
Toplam 74 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Bölüm Makale Başvuru
Yazarlar

Can Donduran 0000-0003-2737-1410

Ahmet Gedik 0000-0002-0371-6528

Yayımlanma Tarihi 31 Temmuz 2021
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2021 Cilt: 16 Sayı: 56

Kaynak Göster

APA Donduran, C., & Gedik, A. (2021). YÜKSELEN POPÜLİZM TEHDİDİ: YİRMİ BİRİNCİ YÜZYILDA FAŞİZMİN GÖLGESİ. Öneri Dergisi, 16(56), 879-909. https://doi.org/10.14783/maruoneri.827835

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