Xenophobia and Anti-Islamism: Framing the News Covering the Shootings Four Years After the Christchurch Mosque Shooting

Öz

The concept of xenophobia, defined as fear and hostility towards the strange and different in a simple and general sense, is quite comprehensive and can be addressed in conjunction with Islamophobia. The terrorist attacks on mosques in Christchurch, New Zealand, in 2019 represent extreme examples of both xenophobia and anti-Islamism. In this study, news articles addressing the Christchurch mosque attacks from January 1, 2023, to October 22, 2023, were collected using keywords and analyzed in a total of 81 articles across nine different frameworks. A comparison was made with previous studies that conducted analyses and framed the topic, allowing an examination of how the content of news articles changed over time since the incident. Furthermore, it has been observed that the Western press did not categorize the attack as anti-Islamism, despite the clear statement in the terrorist's manifesto that he targeted Muslims. Given the influence of media content on shaping individuals' attitudes and perceptions of events, this discrepancy could impede efforts to combat xenophobia and anti-Islamism.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Xenophobia
• Anti-Islamism
• Christchurch Mosque Shootings
• New Zealand Mosque Shootings
• Islam in Western Media

Zenofobi ve İslam Karşıtlığı: Christchurch Cami Saldırılarından Dört Yıl Sonra Saldırıyı Ele Alan Haberlerin Çerçevelenmesi

Öz

Zenofobi kavramı, basit ve genel anlamda yabancı ve farklı olana karşı korku ve düşmanlık olarak tanımlanmasıyla oldukça kapsayıcıdır. Kavramın kapsayıcı yapısı onu İslam karşıtlığıyla beraber ele alınmasını mümkün kılmaktadır. 2019 yılında Yeni Zellanda’nın Christchurch şehrinde gerçekleştirilen cami saldırıları da hem zenofobinin hem de İslam karşıtlığının uç örneklerinden birini oluşturmaktadır. Çalışmada 1 Ocak 2023 tarihinden 22 Ekim 2023 tarihine kadar Christchurch cami saldırılarını ele alan haberler anahtar kelimeler ile toplanmış ve toplamda 81 haberin analizi yapılarak dokuz farklı çerçevede ele alınmıştır. Konuyla ilgili analiz yapan ve çerçeve oluşturan önceki çalışmalar ile buradaki çerçevelerin karşılaştırılması yapılmıştır. Bu sayede olayın üzerinden belli bir süre geçtikten sonra haberlerin içeriklerinin nasıl değiştiğinin incelemesi yapılabilmiştir. Bunların yanı sıra saldırıyı gerçekleştiren teröristin manifestosunda Müslümanlara karşı bu saldırıyı gerçekleştirdiğini açıkça belirtmesine rağmen batı basınında saldırının İslam karşıtlığı bağlamında ele alınmadığı tespit edilmiştir. Medya içeriklerinin bireylerin tutumlarını ve olaylarla ilgili fikirlerini etkileyebildiği gerçeğini göz önünde bulundurduğumuzda bu durum, zenofobi ve İslam karşıtlığı konularındaki mücadeleye ket vurabilmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Zenofobi
• İslam Karşıtlığı
• Christchurch Cami Saldırıları
• Yeni Zellanda Cami Saldırıları
• Batı Basınında İslam

Kaynakça

1. 1news. (2023, September 10). Good sorts: The Wellington woman rehoming orphaned dogs. 1nnews. https://www.1news.co.nz/2023/09/10/good-sorts-wellington-woman-rehoming-orphaned-dogs/#:~:text=For%2020%20years%2C%20Wellington%20woman,to%20get%20these%20puppies%20rehomed.
2. Associated Press. (2023). Michigan man charged with threatening synagogue massacre. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/michigan-man-charged-threatening-synagogue-massacre-100166690.
3. Australian Human Rights Commissions. (2023, October 9). Farewell to the race discrimination commissioner [Commission Website]. Australian Human Rights Commissions. https://humanrights.gov.au/about/news/farewell-race-discrimination-commissioner.
4. Baum, S. K. (2007). Purify and destroy: The political uses of massacre and genocide. Journal of Hate Studies, 6(1), 137–139. https://doi.org/10.33972/jhs.54.
5. Bauman, Z. (2016). Sosyolojik düşünmek (A. Yılmaz, Trans.). Ayrıntı Yayınları.
6. Beutel, A. (2019). The New Zealand terrorist’s manifesto: A look at some of the key narratives, beliefs and tropes. The National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism. https://www.start.umd.edu/news/new-zealand-terrorists-manifesto-look-some-key-narratives-beliefs-and-tropes.
7. Bevan, R. (2023, May 20). 50 percent of gamers are exposed to “extremism” when playing online, according to research. TheGamer. https://www.thegamer.com/gaming-community-online-games-extremism-racism-nazis-call-of-duty-discord/.
8. Blck, G. (2023, September 20). Christchurch mosque attack terrorist seeking judicial review of his prison conditions. NZ Herald. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/christchurch-mosque-attack-terrorist-seeking-judicial-review-of-his-prison-conditions/FA3GOQJVAFCFLMRSK2PRC64QNA/.

9. Ellis, G. and Muller, D. (2020). The proximity filter: The effect of distance on media coverage of the Christchurch mosque attacks. Kōtuitui: New Zealand Journal of Social Sciences Online, 15(2), 332–348. https://doi.org/10.1080/1177083X.2019.1705358.
10. Every-Palmer, S., Cunningham, R., Jenkins, M., and Bell, E. (2021). The Christchurch mosque shooting, the media, and subsequent gun control reform in New Zealand: A descriptive analysis. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 28(2), 274–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2020.1770635.
11. Ewart, J., Pearson, M., and Healy, G. (2016). Journalists’ and educators’ perspectives on news media reporting of islam and muslim communities in australia and new zealand. Journal of Media and Religion, 15(3), 136–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348423.2016.1209391.
12. Fabian, J. (2006). The other revisited: Critical afterthoughts. Anthropological Theory, 6(2), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/1463499606065030.
13. Farrands, C. (1996). Society, Modernity and Social Change: Approaches to Nationalism and Identity. In J. Krause & N. Renwick (Eds.), Identities in International Relations (pp. 1–21). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-25194-0_1.
14. Franks, R. and Cheng, D. (2023, June 26). Christchurch mosque attack: Terrorist’s livestreamed video resurfaces on Twitter. NZ Herald. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/christchurch-mosque-shootings-terrorists-livestreamed-video-resurfaces-on-twitter/XQHRPVFNLNC3LM3GIXR2BPWVIE/.
15. Greaves, L. M., Rasheed, A., D’Souza, S., Shackleton, N., Oldfield, L. D., Sibley, C. G., Milne, B., & Bulbulia, J. (2020). Comparative study of attitudes to religious groups in New Zealand reveals Muslim-specific prejudice. Kōtuitui: New Zealand Journal of Social Sciences Online, 15(2), 260–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/1177083X.2020.1733032.
16. Gutelle, S. (2023, August 8). ‘The YouTube Effect’ documentary arrives on streaming on August 8. Tubefilter. https://www.tubefilter.com/2023/08/04/the-youtube-effect-documentary-available-streaming-alex-winter-film-tribeca-premiere/
17. Harvey, D. (2019). Yeni emperyalizm (A. N. Bingöl, Trans.; 1st ed.). Sel Yayıncılık.
18. Herman, E. S., Chomsky, N., & Abadoğlu, E. (2012). Rızanın imalatı: Kitle medyasının ekonomi politiği. Bgst Yayınları.
19. Hervik, P. (2015). Xenophobia and nativism. In International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (pp. 796–801). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.12167-1.
20. Hillier, B. (2023, January 9). Why are fascist, Nazi and racist bands still being booked to tour Australia in 2023? Blunt. https://www.bluntmag.com.au/music/why-are-fascist-nazi-and-racist-bands-still-being-booked-to-tour-australia-in-2023/.
21. Huntington, S. P. (2021). Medeniyetler çatışması ve dünya düzeninin yeniden kurulması (E. Berktaş, Trans.; 1st ed.). Panama Yayıncılık.
22. Kiousis, S. (2001). Public trust or mistrust? Perceptions of media credibility in the information age. Mass Communication and Society, 4(4), 381–403. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327825MCS0404_4.
23. Kirkpatrick, K. (2023, May 19). Anon imageboard—A deep dive into online culture. https://washingtonindependent.com/anon-imageboard/.
24. Kökel, Z. ve Odabaşı, F. (2017). Uluslararası göç, iltica ve zenofobi. Toplum Bilimleri Dergisi, 11(21), 237–259.
25. Lacan, J. (2019). Psikanalizin dört temel kavramı (N. Erdem, Trans.; Metis Yayınları, 1–1).
26. Lang, B. (2023, July 24). Alex winter’s ‘The Youtube Effect’ takes a tough look at everyone’s favorite cat-video platform. Variety Magazine. https://variety.com/2023/film/news/alex-winter-youtube-effect-documentary-jan-6-conspiracy-theories-1235678305/.
27. Leask, A. (2023, October 19). A Moment in Crime: Christchurch terrorist’s sentencing, why coroner set to hold six-week inquest into massacre. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/a-moment-in-crime-podcast-the-christchurch-terrorists-sentencing-and-why-the-coroner-is-set-to-hold-a-six-week-inquest-into-the-massacre/43KAK5I6PNDJ3AM3RTE6TLW2HM/.
28. Lewis, J., Molloy, J., and Macklin, G. (2023, September 27). The lineage of violence: Saints culture and militant accelerationist terrorism. Global Network on Extremism and Technology. https://gnet-research.org/2023/04/27/the-lineage-of-violence-saints-culture-and-militant-accelerationist-terrorism/.
29. Malik, N. (2019). With respect: How Jacinda Ardern showed the world what a leader should be. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/mar/28/with-respect-how-jacinda-ardern-showed-the-world-what-a-leader-should-be.
30. Mamabolo, M. (2015). Drivers of community xenophobic attacks in South Africa: Poverty and unemployment. The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa, 11(4). https://doi.org/10.4102/td.v11i4.49.
31. Manch, T. (2018). NZ’s battle over semi-automatics: Police frustrated by the law, firearm owners frustrated by police. Stuff. https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/105882611/the-battle-over-semiautomatics-police-frustrated-by-the-law-firearm-owners-frustrated-by-police.
32. Mazer, S. (2020). From performance to performativity: The Christchurch Mosque murders and what came after. Te Kaharoa, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.24135/tekaharoa.v15i1.285.
33. McCulloch, G. (2023, April 29). Aucklanders invited to “meet your Muslim neighbour” before judging. Stuff. https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/300863530/aucklanders-invited-to-meet-your-muslim-neighbour-before-judging#:~:text=Members%20of%20the%20Ahmadiyya%20Muslim,judgements%20based%20on%20his%20religion.
34. New Zealland Herald. (2023, March 9). Histories of hate: New book reflects on the radical right, Christchurch mosque attacks. NZ Herald. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/lifestyle/histories-of-hate-new-book-reflects-on-christchurch-mosque-attacks/KRTD52KYI5EDLBK3N2X3FAHAZY/.
35. Newsline. (2023, February 24). Unity Week launched to honour Christchurch mosque attack victims. Christchurch City Council Newsline. https://newsline.ccc.govt.nz/news/story/unity-week-launched-to-honour-christchurch-mosque-attack-victims.
36. Normand, J.-M. (2022). Jacinda Ardern’s hijab, a “headscarf for harmony.” Le Monde. https://www.lemonde.fr/en/summer-reads/article/2022/07/24/jacinda-ardern-s-hijab-a-headscarf-for-harmony_5991232_183.html.
37. Novitz, J. (2023, March 1). Ambition, corruption and guerilla gardening: Eleanor Catton’s Birnam Wood is a horror story for our time. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/ambition-corruption-and-guerilla-gardening-eleanor-cattons-birnam-wood-is-a-horror-story-for-our-time-195207.
38. O’Connor, J. (2023, September 24). Muslim students voice concerns over rising Islamophobia. The Minnesota Daily. https://mndaily.com/276828/news/muslim-students-voice-concerns-over-rising-islamophobia/.
39. Özmete, E., Yıldırım, H., & Duru, S. (2018). Yabancı düşmanlığı (zenofobi̇) ölçeği̇ni̇n Türk kültürüne uyarlanması: Geçerli̇k ve güveni̇rli̇k çalışması. Sosyal Politika Çalışmaları Dergisi, 18, 191–209.
40. Peacock, C. (2019). The New Zealand mosque massacre: 2. ‘End of innocence’ for media and nation. Pacific Journalism Review : Te Koakoa, 25(1 & 2), 18–28. https://doi.org/10.24135/pjr.v25i1and2.490.
41. Price, O. (2023, March 30). Bradford schoolboy, 15, who idolised Christchurch terrorist Brenton Tarrant was caught planning his own attack after crashing his father’s Lexus while scouting a mosque in Keighley. MailOnline. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-11920891/Bradford-schoolboy-idolised-terrorist-caught-crashing-fathers-Lexus-scouting-mosque.html.
42. Pugachevsky, J. (2023, October 20). Why we can’t stop watching gruesome, graphic war videos on the internet. Insider. https://www.insider.com/why-some-people-cant-stop-watching-gruesome-graphic-war-videos-2023-10.
43. Rahman, K. A. (2020). News media and the Muslim identity after the Christchurch mosque massacres. Kōtuitui: New Zealand Journal of Social Sciences Online, 15(2), 360–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/1177083X.2020.1747503.
44. Rahman, K. A. and Emadi, A. (2018). Representations of Islam and Muslims in New Zealand media. Pacific Journalism Review: Te Koakoa, 24(2), 166–188. https://doi.org/10.24135/pjr.v24i2.419.
45. Rane, H., Ewart, J., & Martinkus, J. (2014). Media-generated Muslims and Islamophobia. In H. Rane, J. Ewart, & J. Martinkus (Eds.), Media Framing of the Muslim World: Conflicts, Crises and Contexts (pp. 29–46). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137334831_3.
46. RNZ. (2023, May 2). King Charles’ coronation: Mosque attack hero surprised to be on invitation list. Radio New Zealand. https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/489072/king-charles-coronation-mosque-attack-hero-surprised-to-be-on-invitation-list.
47. Sanchez-Mazas, M., and Licata, L. (2015). Xenophobia: Social Psychological Aspects. In International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (pp. 802–807). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.24031-2.
48. Satır, M. E. (2020). Yeni̇ Zellanda’da meydana gelen terör eylemi̇ni̇n uluslararası medyada sunuluş bi̇çi̇mleri̇ üzeri̇ne eleşti̇rel söylem anali̇zi̇. Atatürk İletişim Dergisi, 5(19), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.32952/atauniiletisim.676974.
49. Scotcher, K. (2020). Christchurch gunman’s racist views traced to when he was 12—Report. Radio New Zealand. https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/432610/christchurch-gunman-s-racist-views-traced-to-when-he-was-12-report.
50. Şentürk, E., & Aşicioğlu, F. (2020). An online international media analysis of terrorist attacks on two mosques in New Zealand. Turkiye Klinikleri Journal of Forensic Medicine and Forensic Sciences, 17(3), 194–208. https://doi.org/10.5336/forensic.2020-74315.
51. Shaskey, T. (2023, March 3). The first phase of the coronial inquest into the Christchurch mosque attack has been adjourned. NZ Herald. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/the-first-phase-of-the-coronial-inquest-into-the-christchurch-mosque-attack-has-been-adjourned/J3XNTUOQNFD5BHHH6JIUCZKOCE/.
52. Sims, J. (2023). Crown grills Nathaniel Veltman on evidence he planned attack on Muslims. The London Free Press. https://lfpress.com/news/local-news/crown-grills-nathaniel-veltman-on-evidence-he-planned-attack-on-muslims.
53. Soliman, E. M., Korany, H. B., and El Maghraby, S. S. (2021). Media coverage of Christchurch mosque attacks in Western News Websites: The Scientific Journal of Public Relations and Advertising Research, 2021(21), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.21608/sjocs.2021.177764.
54. Southwell, D. (2023). Sydney teenager charged for allegedly threatening to carry out mass shooting similar to Christchurch attack. Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-12553963/Sydney-teenager-charged-allegedly-threatening-carry-mass-shooting-similar-Christchurch-attack.html.
55. Stewart, E. (2023, October 4). What is “race-baiting” and who decides? Radio New Zealand. https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/in-depth/499388/what-is-race-baiting-and-who-decides#:~:text=By%20a%20strict%20dictionary%20definition,rarely%20be%20applied%20without%20objection.
56. Stuff. (2023, February 12). Notes in the letterbox, being followed, and death threats: Life as a leading alt-right researcher. Stuff. https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/300801726/notes-in-the-letterbox-being-followed-and-death-threats-life-as-a-leading-altright-researcher.
57. Tajfel, H. (Ed.). (2010). Social identity and intergroup relations (1. paperback printing). Ed. de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme.
58. Taras, R. (2012). Xenophobia and Islamophobia in Europe. Edinburgh University Press.
59. The Institute of Art and Ideas (Director). (2019, September 9). Why Do We Love Evil? | Terry Eagleton, Susan Neiman, Stephen de Wijze. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cY5hQiPKHSk.
60. Thomas, K. V. (2023, July 19). Australia and India should collaborate to counter terrorism. The Strategist. https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/australia-and-india-should-collaborate-to-counter-terrorism/.
61. Walch, T. (2023, January 20). When ‘Jacindamania’ and President Nelson’s South Pacific ministry tour crossed paths to stop hate. Deseret News. https://www.deseret.com/2023/1/19/23563083/jacinda-ardern-stepping-down-but-shined-in-fight-against-hate.
62. Wilkinson, J. (2023, August 29). Customs investigation leads to jail time for Auckland man caught with child exploitation material. NZ Herald. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/crime/customs-investigation-leads-to-jail-time-for-auckland-man-caught-with-child-exploitation-material/CJU23S2PZZAQLJUK475FZNGB5Y/.
63. Yogeeswaran, K., Afzali, M. U., Andrews, N. P., Chivers, E. A., Wang, M.-J., Devos, T., and Sibley, C. G. (2019). Exploring New Zealand national identity and its importance for attitudes toward Muslims and support for diversity. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 48(1), 29–35.