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Savunma mimarisi elemanları: Tanımlar, işlevler ve terminoloji sorunları

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 14 Sayı: 3, 1188 - 1202, 30.09.2024
https://doi.org/10.48146/odusobiad.1293505

Öz

Arkeolojide, savaşın somut kanıtlarının en önemlilerinden birisi savunma mimarisidir. Ancak arkeolojik çalışmalarda savunma mimarisini oluşturan taşınmazların tespiti ve işlevlerinin niteliği çeşitli tartışmaları da beraberinde getirmiştir. Bu makalede hendek, glacis, yığma toprak set, savunma duvarı/palisad, kule/ bastion ve kapıdan oluşan savunma mimarisi elemanlarının tanımları yapılarak, işlevleri hakkındaki çeşitli görüşler üzerinde durulmuştur. Arkeoloji literatüründe savunma mimarisi ile ilgili taşınmazların isimleri çoğunlukla birbirleri yerine kullanılabilen sur ya da savunma duvarı, çit ya da palisad, bastion ya da kule, rampa ya da glacis gibi farklı sözcüklerle ifade edildiğinden terminolojide karmaşa yaşanmaktadır. Bu karmaşayı önlemek için, savunma mimarisi ile ilgili terminoloji sorunları tartışılarak Türkçe’de kullanılan farklı terimler için bazı önerilerde bulunulmuştur.

Kaynakça

  • Arseven, C. E. (1943). Sanat ansiklopedisi. Maarif Matbaası.
  • Avery, M. (1993). Hillfort defences of Southern Britain, BAR British Series 231.
  • Burke, A. A. (2004). The architecture of defense: Fortified settlements of the Levant during the Middle Bronze Age (Yayın No. 3125664) [Doktora tezi, Chicago University-Illinois]. Proquest Dissertations and Thesis Global.
  • Chapagain, N. K. (2005, July 6-7). Living in Lomanthang: An earthen walled settlement in the Trans-Himalayan region of Nepal [Bildiri sunumu]. Proceedings for the first international conference living in earthen cities-Kerpic’05, ITU-Istanbul-Turkey.
  • DePratter, C. B. (1991). Late prehistoric and early historic chiefdoms in the southeastern United States. Garland Publishing.
  • Devellioğlu, F. (1996). Osmanlıca-Türkçe ansiklopedik lugat (13. bs.). Aydın Kitabevi Yayınları.
  • Diaz-Del Rio, P. (2004). Copper age ditched enclosures in Central Iberia. Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 23(2), 107–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0092.2004.00204.x
  • Dye, D. H. (2018). Rotten palisade posts and rickety baffle gates: Repairing native eastern north American fortifications. A. J. Clark, D. B. Bamforth (Ed.), Archaeological perspectives on warfare on the Great Plains içinde (pp. 145-176). University Press of Colorado. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvgd21w.7
  • Duru, R. & Umurtak, G. (2008). Bademağacı kazıları 2004, 2005 ve 2006 yılları çalışma raporu, Belleten, 72(263), 193-250.
  • Efe, T. (2007). Küllüoba 2007 yılı kazı çalışmalarına ait rapor. http://w3.bilecik.edu.tr/kulluoba/wpcontent/uploads/sites/95/2019/06/k%C3%BCll%C3%BCoba-2007-i%C3%BC-rapor.pdf
  • Eitzel, M. V. vd. (2017). Citizen science terminology matters: Exploring key terms. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice, 2(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.5334/cstp.96
  • Erkanal, H. (1999). Early bronze age fortification systems in Izmir region. P. P. Betancourt vd. (Ed.), Meletemata Studies in Aegean Archaeology Presented to Malcolm H. Wiener as he enters his 65th year içinde (pp. 237-242). Université de Liège.
  • Finkelstein, I. (1992). Middle bronze Age ‘fortifications’: A reflection of social organization and political formations. Tel Aviv, 19(2), 201-220. https://doi.org/10.1179/tav.1992.1992.2.201
  • Gophna, R. (1992). Early bronze age fortification wall and middle bronze age rampart at Tel Poran. Tel Aviv, 19(2), 267-273. https://doi.org/10.1179/tav.1992.1992.2.267
  • Hasol, D. (1979). Ansiklopedik Mimarlik Sözlüğü, Yapı Endüstri Merkezi Yayınları.
  • Hayli, S. (2012). Az bilinen bir yerleşme tipi “palangalar” ve Erzincan ovası palanga yerleşmesi örnekleri. Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, 58, 43-52. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/198426
  • Herzog, Z. (1997). Archaeology of the city: Urban planning in ancient Israel and its social implications. Emery and Claire Yass Archaeology Press.
  • Ivanova, M. (2008). Befestigte siedlungen auf dem Balkan, in der Ägäis und in Westanatolien, ca. 5000-2000 v. Waxmann Verlag GmbH.
  • Heusch, J. C. (1979). Tall Habuba Kabira im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend—die Entwicklung der Baustuktur. J. C. Margueron (Ed.), Le Moyen Euphrate: Actes du colloque de Strasbourg 10– 12 mars 1977 içinde (pp. 159–99). Brill.
  • Hnaihen, K. H. (2020). The defensive brick architecture in Mesopotamia from the end of Early Bronze Age to the end of the Early Iron Age [Doktora tezi, Almeria University-Spain]. http://repositorio.ual.es/handle/10835/10841?locale-attribute=en
  • Keeley, L. H., Fontana, M. & Quick, R. (2007). Baffles and bastions: the universal features of fortifications. Journal of Archaeological Resource, 15(1), 55–95. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10814-006-9009-0
  • Kempinski, A. (1992). The Middle Bronze Age. A. Ben-Tor (Ed.), The Archaeology of Ancient Israel içinde (pp. 159-210). Yale University Press.
  • Kenzle, S. (1997). Enclosing walls in the Northern San Juan: Sociophysical boundaries and defensive fortifications in the American Southwest. Journal of Field Archaeology, 24(2), 195-210. https://doi.org/10.1179/009346997792208177
  • Kern, P. B. (1999). Ancient siege warfare. Indiana University Press.
  • Korfmann, M. (1983). Demircihüyük 1: Architektur, stratigraphie und befunde. Phillip von Zabern.
  • Larson, L. H. (1972). Functional considerations of warfare in the southeast during the Mississippi period. American Antiquity, 37(3), 383-392. https://www.jstor.org/stable/278437
  • Mallory, J. & McNeill, T. (1991). The archaeology of Ulster. Queen’s University of Belfast. Naumann, R. (1971). Architektur Kleinasiens von ihren Anfängen bis zum Ende der hethitischen Zeit (2. bs). Wasmuth.
  • Naumann, R. (1991). Eski Anadolu mimarlığı (3. bs). Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları.
  • Netzer, E. (1992). Massive structures: processes in construction and deterioration. A. Kempinski & R. Reich (Ed.), The Architecture of Ancient Israel: From the prehistoric to the Persian periods içinde (pp. 17-27). Israel Exploration Society.
  • Oredsson, D. (2000). Moats in ancient Palestine. Almqvist§Wiksell International.
  • Özdoğan, M. (1998). Tarihöncesi dönemlerde Anadolu ile Balkanlar arasındaki kültür ilişkileri ve Trakya’da yapılan yeni kazı çalışmaları. TÜBA-AR, I, 63-85. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/tubaar/issue/61830/925379
  • Özdoğan, M., Parzinger, H. & Karul, N. (2000). 1998 yılı Kırklareli Höyüğü kazıları, 21. Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı, 1. Cilt, 93-108. https://kvmgm.ktb.gov.tr/TR-44760/kazi-sonuclari-toplantilari.html
  • Özgüven, B. (2001). The palanka: A characteristic building type of the Ottoman fortification network in Hungary. M. Kiel, N. Landman § H. Theunissen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art Utrecht - The Netherlands, August 23-28, 1999 (=Electronic Journal of Oriental Studies, Vol. IV) içinde (pp.1-12). Universiteit Utrecht. https://www.academia.edu/9386891/_The_Palanka_A_Characteristic_Building_Type_of_the_Ottoman_Fortification_Network_in_Hungary_EJOS_Electronic_Journal_of_Oriental_Studies_Proceedings_of_the_XIth_International_Congress_of_Turkish_Art_Utrecht_The_Netherlands_no_34_Vol_IV_Yıl_2001_1_12
  • Püsküllüoğlu, A. (2004). Türkçe sözlük (Genişletilmiş 5. bs.). Doğan Kitap.
  • Reich, R. & Katzenstein, H. (1992). Glossary of architectural terms. A. Kempinski ve R. Reich (Ed.), The architecture of ancient Israel: From the prehistoric to the Persian periods içinde (pp. 311–322). Israel Exploration Society.
  • Renkliyıldırım, Ö. (1993). Büyük İngilizce Türkçe – Türkçe sözlük. Longman-Metro.
  • Saraç, T. (2015). Büyük Fransızca-Türkçe sözlük. Saraç Yayınları.
  • Seheer, J. (2007). Hattuša bir kent suru. Bir rekonstrüksiyon çalışması. Ege Yayınları.
  • Steuerwald, K. (1998). Almanca-Türkçe sözlük. Abc Yayınevi.
  • Thorpe, N. (2003). Anthropology, archaeology, and the origin of warfare. World Archaeology, 35(1), 145-165. https://doi.org/10.1080/0043824032000079198
  • Tringham, R. (1971). Hunters, fishers and farmers of Eastern Europe, 6000-3000 b.c. Hutchinson University Press.
  • Toy, S. (1966). A history of fortification from 3000 B.C. to A.D. 1700. Heinemann.
  • Tuğlacı, P. (1991). Resimli İngilizce-Türkçe sözlük. ABC kitabevi.
  • Türk Dil Kurumu (t.y.). Güncel Türkçe sözlük. https://sozluk.gov.tr/
  • Usisshkin, D. (1989). Notes on the fortifications of the middle bronze II period at Jericho and Shechem. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 276, 29-53. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/1356850
  • Vencl, S. (1999). Stone age warfare. J. Carman § A. Harding (Ed.), Ancient Warfare içinde (pp. 57-72). Sutton publication.
  • Warner, J. L. (1994). Elmalı-Karataş II. The early bronze age village of Karataş. Bryn Mawr College.
  • Yadin, Y. (1963). The Art of warfare in biblical lands in the light of archaeological study. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
  • Zülfikar, H. (1991). Terim sorunları ve terim yapma yolları. Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları.

Defensive architecture elements: Definitions, functions, and terminology problems

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 14 Sayı: 3, 1188 - 1202, 30.09.2024
https://doi.org/10.48146/odusobiad.1293505

Öz

One of the substantial archaeological evidence of warfare is defensive architecture. However, identifying the elements of defensive architecture and their functions has led to several disputes in archaeological research. In this article, the definitions of ditch, glacis, rampart, defensive wall/palisade, tower/bastion, and gate, which fall within the scope of defensive architecture, are given and different views of their functions are highlighted. Since the names of the elements of defensive architecture are often expressed with different terms in the archaeological literature, such as fortification or defensive wall, fence or palisade, bastion or tower, ramp or glacis, there are also ambiguities in terminology. By studying the terminological problems related to defensive architecture, some suggestions have been made for different terms used in Turkish to avoid this uncertainty.

Kaynakça

  • Arseven, C. E. (1943). Sanat ansiklopedisi. Maarif Matbaası.
  • Avery, M. (1993). Hillfort defences of Southern Britain, BAR British Series 231.
  • Burke, A. A. (2004). The architecture of defense: Fortified settlements of the Levant during the Middle Bronze Age (Yayın No. 3125664) [Doktora tezi, Chicago University-Illinois]. Proquest Dissertations and Thesis Global.
  • Chapagain, N. K. (2005, July 6-7). Living in Lomanthang: An earthen walled settlement in the Trans-Himalayan region of Nepal [Bildiri sunumu]. Proceedings for the first international conference living in earthen cities-Kerpic’05, ITU-Istanbul-Turkey.
  • DePratter, C. B. (1991). Late prehistoric and early historic chiefdoms in the southeastern United States. Garland Publishing.
  • Devellioğlu, F. (1996). Osmanlıca-Türkçe ansiklopedik lugat (13. bs.). Aydın Kitabevi Yayınları.
  • Diaz-Del Rio, P. (2004). Copper age ditched enclosures in Central Iberia. Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 23(2), 107–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0092.2004.00204.x
  • Dye, D. H. (2018). Rotten palisade posts and rickety baffle gates: Repairing native eastern north American fortifications. A. J. Clark, D. B. Bamforth (Ed.), Archaeological perspectives on warfare on the Great Plains içinde (pp. 145-176). University Press of Colorado. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvgd21w.7
  • Duru, R. & Umurtak, G. (2008). Bademağacı kazıları 2004, 2005 ve 2006 yılları çalışma raporu, Belleten, 72(263), 193-250.
  • Efe, T. (2007). Küllüoba 2007 yılı kazı çalışmalarına ait rapor. http://w3.bilecik.edu.tr/kulluoba/wpcontent/uploads/sites/95/2019/06/k%C3%BCll%C3%BCoba-2007-i%C3%BC-rapor.pdf
  • Eitzel, M. V. vd. (2017). Citizen science terminology matters: Exploring key terms. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice, 2(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.5334/cstp.96
  • Erkanal, H. (1999). Early bronze age fortification systems in Izmir region. P. P. Betancourt vd. (Ed.), Meletemata Studies in Aegean Archaeology Presented to Malcolm H. Wiener as he enters his 65th year içinde (pp. 237-242). Université de Liège.
  • Finkelstein, I. (1992). Middle bronze Age ‘fortifications’: A reflection of social organization and political formations. Tel Aviv, 19(2), 201-220. https://doi.org/10.1179/tav.1992.1992.2.201
  • Gophna, R. (1992). Early bronze age fortification wall and middle bronze age rampart at Tel Poran. Tel Aviv, 19(2), 267-273. https://doi.org/10.1179/tav.1992.1992.2.267
  • Hasol, D. (1979). Ansiklopedik Mimarlik Sözlüğü, Yapı Endüstri Merkezi Yayınları.
  • Hayli, S. (2012). Az bilinen bir yerleşme tipi “palangalar” ve Erzincan ovası palanga yerleşmesi örnekleri. Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, 58, 43-52. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/198426
  • Herzog, Z. (1997). Archaeology of the city: Urban planning in ancient Israel and its social implications. Emery and Claire Yass Archaeology Press.
  • Ivanova, M. (2008). Befestigte siedlungen auf dem Balkan, in der Ägäis und in Westanatolien, ca. 5000-2000 v. Waxmann Verlag GmbH.
  • Heusch, J. C. (1979). Tall Habuba Kabira im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend—die Entwicklung der Baustuktur. J. C. Margueron (Ed.), Le Moyen Euphrate: Actes du colloque de Strasbourg 10– 12 mars 1977 içinde (pp. 159–99). Brill.
  • Hnaihen, K. H. (2020). The defensive brick architecture in Mesopotamia from the end of Early Bronze Age to the end of the Early Iron Age [Doktora tezi, Almeria University-Spain]. http://repositorio.ual.es/handle/10835/10841?locale-attribute=en
  • Keeley, L. H., Fontana, M. & Quick, R. (2007). Baffles and bastions: the universal features of fortifications. Journal of Archaeological Resource, 15(1), 55–95. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10814-006-9009-0
  • Kempinski, A. (1992). The Middle Bronze Age. A. Ben-Tor (Ed.), The Archaeology of Ancient Israel içinde (pp. 159-210). Yale University Press.
  • Kenzle, S. (1997). Enclosing walls in the Northern San Juan: Sociophysical boundaries and defensive fortifications in the American Southwest. Journal of Field Archaeology, 24(2), 195-210. https://doi.org/10.1179/009346997792208177
  • Kern, P. B. (1999). Ancient siege warfare. Indiana University Press.
  • Korfmann, M. (1983). Demircihüyük 1: Architektur, stratigraphie und befunde. Phillip von Zabern.
  • Larson, L. H. (1972). Functional considerations of warfare in the southeast during the Mississippi period. American Antiquity, 37(3), 383-392. https://www.jstor.org/stable/278437
  • Mallory, J. & McNeill, T. (1991). The archaeology of Ulster. Queen’s University of Belfast. Naumann, R. (1971). Architektur Kleinasiens von ihren Anfängen bis zum Ende der hethitischen Zeit (2. bs). Wasmuth.
  • Naumann, R. (1991). Eski Anadolu mimarlığı (3. bs). Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları.
  • Netzer, E. (1992). Massive structures: processes in construction and deterioration. A. Kempinski & R. Reich (Ed.), The Architecture of Ancient Israel: From the prehistoric to the Persian periods içinde (pp. 17-27). Israel Exploration Society.
  • Oredsson, D. (2000). Moats in ancient Palestine. Almqvist§Wiksell International.
  • Özdoğan, M. (1998). Tarihöncesi dönemlerde Anadolu ile Balkanlar arasındaki kültür ilişkileri ve Trakya’da yapılan yeni kazı çalışmaları. TÜBA-AR, I, 63-85. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/tubaar/issue/61830/925379
  • Özdoğan, M., Parzinger, H. & Karul, N. (2000). 1998 yılı Kırklareli Höyüğü kazıları, 21. Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı, 1. Cilt, 93-108. https://kvmgm.ktb.gov.tr/TR-44760/kazi-sonuclari-toplantilari.html
  • Özgüven, B. (2001). The palanka: A characteristic building type of the Ottoman fortification network in Hungary. M. Kiel, N. Landman § H. Theunissen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art Utrecht - The Netherlands, August 23-28, 1999 (=Electronic Journal of Oriental Studies, Vol. IV) içinde (pp.1-12). Universiteit Utrecht. https://www.academia.edu/9386891/_The_Palanka_A_Characteristic_Building_Type_of_the_Ottoman_Fortification_Network_in_Hungary_EJOS_Electronic_Journal_of_Oriental_Studies_Proceedings_of_the_XIth_International_Congress_of_Turkish_Art_Utrecht_The_Netherlands_no_34_Vol_IV_Yıl_2001_1_12
  • Püsküllüoğlu, A. (2004). Türkçe sözlük (Genişletilmiş 5. bs.). Doğan Kitap.
  • Reich, R. & Katzenstein, H. (1992). Glossary of architectural terms. A. Kempinski ve R. Reich (Ed.), The architecture of ancient Israel: From the prehistoric to the Persian periods içinde (pp. 311–322). Israel Exploration Society.
  • Renkliyıldırım, Ö. (1993). Büyük İngilizce Türkçe – Türkçe sözlük. Longman-Metro.
  • Saraç, T. (2015). Büyük Fransızca-Türkçe sözlük. Saraç Yayınları.
  • Seheer, J. (2007). Hattuša bir kent suru. Bir rekonstrüksiyon çalışması. Ege Yayınları.
  • Steuerwald, K. (1998). Almanca-Türkçe sözlük. Abc Yayınevi.
  • Thorpe, N. (2003). Anthropology, archaeology, and the origin of warfare. World Archaeology, 35(1), 145-165. https://doi.org/10.1080/0043824032000079198
  • Tringham, R. (1971). Hunters, fishers and farmers of Eastern Europe, 6000-3000 b.c. Hutchinson University Press.
  • Toy, S. (1966). A history of fortification from 3000 B.C. to A.D. 1700. Heinemann.
  • Tuğlacı, P. (1991). Resimli İngilizce-Türkçe sözlük. ABC kitabevi.
  • Türk Dil Kurumu (t.y.). Güncel Türkçe sözlük. https://sozluk.gov.tr/
  • Usisshkin, D. (1989). Notes on the fortifications of the middle bronze II period at Jericho and Shechem. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 276, 29-53. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/1356850
  • Vencl, S. (1999). Stone age warfare. J. Carman § A. Harding (Ed.), Ancient Warfare içinde (pp. 57-72). Sutton publication.
  • Warner, J. L. (1994). Elmalı-Karataş II. The early bronze age village of Karataş. Bryn Mawr College.
  • Yadin, Y. (1963). The Art of warfare in biblical lands in the light of archaeological study. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
  • Zülfikar, H. (1991). Terim sorunları ve terim yapma yolları. Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları.
Toplam 49 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Arkeoloji
Bölüm DERLEME
Yazarlar

Olcay Zengin Koşan 0000-0003-0656-3093

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Eylül 2024
Gönderilme Tarihi 6 Mayıs 2023
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2024 Cilt: 14 Sayı: 3

Kaynak Göster

APA Zengin Koşan, O. (2024). Savunma mimarisi elemanları: Tanımlar, işlevler ve terminoloji sorunları. Ordu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Sosyal Bilimler Araştırmaları Dergisi, 14(3), 1188-1202. https://doi.org/10.48146/odusobiad.1293505

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