Aksöğütün (Salix alba L.) budanmış dal odunu artıklarının teknik özellikleri ve biyomalzeme potansiyeli

Öz

Çalışmada, budama artığı niteliğindeki aksöğüt (Salix alba L.) dal odununun morfolojik, termal, kristalin ve mekanik özellikleri karakterize edilmiştir. 2 yıl süresince açık hava koşullarında toprakla temas halinde bırakılan materyalde yapılan taramalı elektron mikroskobu analizleri, temel anatomik yapının büyük oranda korunduğunu, ancak hücre çeperlerinde lokal morfolojik deformasyonlar geliştiğini ortaya koymuştur. Termogravimetrik verilere göre, örnek tipik üç aşamalı lignoselüloz bozunma profili sergilemiş ve DTG eğrisinde 380,8 °C’de maksimum bozunma tepe noktası gözlemlenmiş ve 800 °C’deki kalıntı kütle oranı %16,2 olarak hesaplanmıştır. X-ışını kırınım bulguları, karakteristik selüloz tepe noktalarını doğrulamış ve kristalinite indeksi %43,6 olarak belirlenmiştir. Vickers mikrosertlik testlerinde lif yönüne paralel ortalama değerler 100 ± 6 MPa, lif yönüne dik değerler ise 67 ± 3 MPa olarak ölçülmüş, yönlenmeye bağlı mekanik anizotropi açık biçimde izlenmiştir. Bulgular, aksöğüt dal odununun termokimyasal kararlılığı ile kristalin organizasyonu arasında tutarlı bir ilişkinin bulunduğunu ve budama artıklarının yalnızca enerji biyokütlesi olarak değil, biyomalzeme ve mühendislik temelli uygulamalarda da değerlendirilebilecek potansiyele sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Çalışma, dal artıklarının sürdürülebilir ve katma değerli kullanımına yönelik deneysel verileri sunmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Lignoselülozik atık
• taramalı elektron mikroskobu
• termogravimetrik analiz
• X-ışını kırınımı
• Vickers mikrosertlik

Technical properties and biomaterial potential of pruned branch wood residues of White willow (Salix alba L.)

Öz

In this study, the morphological, thermal, crystalline, and mechanical properties of pruned branch wood of White willow (Salix alba L.) were characterized. The material, which was left in contact with soil under open-air conditions for 2 years, was examined by scanning electron microscopy, revealing that the fundamental anatomical structure was largely preserved, although local morphological deformations developed in the cell walls. According to thermogravimetric data, the sample exhibited a typical three-stage lignocellulosic degradation profile, with a maximum degradation peak observed at 380.8 °C in the DTG curve. The residual mass fraction at 800 °C was calculated as 16.2%. X-ray diffraction results confirmed the characteristic cellulose peaks, and the crystallinity index was determined to be 43.6%. In Vickers microhardness tests, the average values were measured as 100 ± 6 MPa parallel to the grain and 67 ± 3 MPa perpendicular to the grain, clearly indicating orientation-dependent mechanical anisotropy. The findings demonstrate a consistent relationship between the thermochemical stability and crystalline organization of White willow branch wood and suggest that pruning residues possess potential not only as energy biomass but also for biomaterial and engineering-based applications. This study provides experimental data supporting the sustainable and value-added utilization of branch residues.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Lignocellulosic biomass
• scanning electron microscopy
• thermogravimetric analysis
• X-ray diffraction
• Vickers microhardness

Kaynakça

1. Acosta, A.P., de Avila Delucis, R., Santos, O.L., Amico, S.C., 2024. A review on wood permeability: Influential factors and measurement technologies. Journal of the Indian Academy of Wood Science 21(1): 175-191. Doi: 10.1007/s13196-024-00335-4
2. Adams, P.W.R., Lindegaard, K.N., 2016. A critical appraisal of the effectiveness of UK perennial energy crops policy since 1990. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55: 188-202. Doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.126
3. Alfredsen, G., Bader, T.K., Dibdiakova, J., Filbakk, T., Bollmus, S., Hofstetter, K., 2012. Thermogravimetric analysis for wood decay characterisation. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 70(4): 527-530. Doi: 10.1007/s00107-011-0566-7
4. Almuktar, S. A., Abed, S. N., Scholz, M., 2024. Biomass production and metal remediation by Salix alba L. and Salix viminalis L. irrigated with greywater treated by floating wetlands. Environments 11(3): 44. Doi: 10.3390/environments11030044
5. Amiandamhen, S.O., Nagy, N.E., Fongen, M., Alfredsen, G., 2024. Simultaneous thermal analysis for characterization of fungal depolymerisation of Norway spruce. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 186: 105687. Doi: 10.1016/j.ibiod.2023.105687
6. Amichev, B.Y., Hangs, R.D., Van Rees, K.C., 2011. A novel approach to simulate growth of multi-stem willow in bioenergy production systems with a simple process-based model (3PG). Biomass and Bioenergy 35: 473-488. Doi: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2010.09.007
7. Andleeb, L., Dar, A.R., Akhter, A., Qureshi, I.A., Shah, N.H., Wani, M.R., Roshan, M., 2018. Cultivation, diversity and bio-potential of Salix in the Kashmir Himalaya, India. International Journal of Life Sciences 6(1): 105-110
8. Andrei, M., Ene, N., Pintilie, L., Radu, N., Tomescu, A.J., Raiciu, A.D., 2024. Multiple natural approaches of Salix alba. Archives of Microbiology & Immunology 8(3): 410-427. Doi: 10.26502/ami.936500188

9. Apaydın Varol, E., Mutlu, Ü., 2023. TGA-FTIR analysis of biomass samples based on the thermal decomposition behavior of hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. Energies 16(9): 3674. Doi: 10.3390/en16093674
10. Arıhan, O., Köroğlu, A., 2011. Studies on the anatomical structure of stems of willow (Salix L.) species (Salicaceae) growing in Ankara province, Turkey. Turkish Journal of Botany 35(5): 535-551. Doi: 10.3906/bot-1003-50
11. Argus, G., 2010. Salicaceae. Şu eserde: Magnoliophyta: Salicaceae to Brassicaceae, Vol. 7. Oxford University Press, p. 23-51
12. Arpaci, S.S., Tomak, E.D., Ermeydan, M.A., Yildirim, I., 2021. Natural weathering of sixteen wood species: Changes on surface properties. Polymer Degradation and Stability 183: 109415. Doi: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2020.109415
13. Aşıkuzun, E., İşleyen, Ü.K., 2019. Determination of mechanical properties of aged wood material using Vickers microhardness test. Kastamonu University Journal of Forestry Faculty 19(1): 106-115. Doi: 10.17475/kastorman.543542
14. Auriga, R., Auriga, A., Borysiuk, P., Wilkowski, J., Fornalczyk, O., Ochmian, I., 2022. Lignocellulosic biomass from grapevines as raw material for particleboard production. Polymers 14(12): 2483. Doi: 10.3390/polym14122483
15. Aydemir, D., Aksu, O., Bardak, T., Yaman, B., Sözen, E., Yalçın, Ö.Ü., Gündüz, G., Koçan, N., 2024. Mechanical characterization and strain analysis applied to the heat treatment of wood materials by means of digital image correlation. BioResources 19(2): 3010-3030. Doi: 10.15376/biores.19.2.3010-3030
16. Bajraktari, D., Bauer, B., Zeneli, L., 2022. Antioxidant capacity of Salix alba (Fam. Salicaceae) and influence of heavy metal accumulation. Horticulturae 8(7): 642. Doi: 10.3390/horticulturae8070642
17. Baker, P., Charlton, A., Johnston, C., Leahy, J.J., Lindegaard, K., Pisano, I., Prendergast, J., Preskett, D., Skinner, C., 2022. A review of willow (Salix spp.) as an integrated biorefinery feedstock. Industrial Crops and Products 189: 115823. Doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2022.115823
18. Bakšienė, E., Titova, J., 2018. Effects of cultivation technologies on woody biomass yield of various willow (Salix spp.) cultivars. Zemdirbyste 105: 339-348. Doi: 10.13080/z-a.2018.105.043
19. Balzano, A., Merela, M., Čufar, K., 2022. Scanning electron microscopy protocol for studying anatomy of highly degraded waterlogged archaeological wood. Forests 13(2): 161. Doi: 10.3390/f13020161
20. Baraúna, E.E.P., Lima, J.T., Vieira, R.D.S., Silva, J.R.M.D., Monteiro, T.C., 2014. Effect of anatomical and chemical structure in the permeability of “Amapá” wood. Cerne 20(4): 529-534. Doi: 10.1590/01047760201420041501
21. Barton-Pudlik, J., Czaja, K., 2018. Fast-growing willow (Salix viminalis) as a filler in polyethylene composites. Composites Part B: Engineering 143: 68-74. Doi: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.01.031
22. Beims, R. F., Arredondo, R., Sosa Carrero, D. J., Yuan, Z., Li, H., Shui, H., Zhang, Y., Leitch, M., Xu, C. C., 2022. Functionalized wood as bio-based advanced materials: Properties, applications, and challenges. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157: 112074. Doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2022.112074
23. Berlyn, P.G., Miksche, J., 1976. Botanical microtechnique and cytochemistry. The Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa
24. Bhat, G.M., Islam, M.A., Malik, A.R., Rather, T.A., Khan, F.A., Mir, A.H., 2019. Productivity and economic evaluation of willow (Salix alba L.) based silvopastoral agroforestry system in Kashmir valley. Journal of Applied and Natural Science 11(3). 743-751. Doi: 10.31018/jans.v11i3.2104
25. Boukir, A., Fellak, S., Doumenq, P., 2019. Structural characterization of Argania spinosa Moroccan wooden artifacts during natural degradation progress using infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and X-Ray diffraction (XRD). Heliyon 5(9): e02477. Doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02477
26. Braz, R.L., Nutto, L., Brunsmeier, M., Becker, G., Da Silva, D.A., 2014. Resíduos da colheita florestal e do processamento da madeira na Amazônia–Uma análise da cadeia produtiva. Journal of Biotechnology and Biodiversity 5: 168-181. Doi: 10.20873/jbb.uft.cemaf.v5n2.braz
27. Brebu, M., Vasile, C., 2010. Thermal degradation of lignin- A review. Cellulose Chemistry & Technology 44(9): 353
28. Bucur, V., 2011. Delamination in wood, wood products and wood-based composites. Springer, London, New York. Chapter 6-9
29. Budakçı, M., Karamanoğlu, M., 2014. Açık hava koşullarının odunun bazı fiziksel özelliklerine etkileri. Kastamonu University Journal of Forestry Faculty 14(1): 37-47
30. Chen, C., Kuang, Y., Zhu, S., Burgert, I., Keplinger, T., Gong, A., Li, T., Berglund, L., Eichhorn, S. J., Hu, L., 2020. Structure–property–function relationships of natural and engineered wood. Nature Reviews Materials 5(9): 642-666. Doi: 10.1038/s41578-020-0195-z
31. Cobas, A.C., Tortoriello, M., 2024. Caracterización tecnológica: Edad de transición y análisis de la densidad y propiedades mecánicas en madera de Salix sp. Revista FAVE Sección Ciencias Veterinarias 23: 8-8. Doi: 10.14409/fa.2024.23.e0025
32. Collard, F.X., Blin, J., 2014. A review on pyrolysis of biomass constituents: Mechanisms and composition of the products obtained from the conversion of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38: 594-608. Doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.06.013
33. Dadzie, P.K., Amoah, M., Ebanyenle, E., Frimpong-Mensah, K., 2018. Characterization of density and selected anatomical features of stemwood and branchwood of E. cylindricum, E. angolense and K. ivorensis from natural forests in Ghana. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 76: 655-667. Doi: 10.1007/s00107-017-1195-6
34. Değirmenci, F.Ö., 2017. Genetic Structures of Salix alba and Salix excelsa Populations From Two Major River Systems in Turkey. Middle East Technical University, The Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences. Doctoral dissertation, Ankara
35. De Micco, V., Balzano, A., Wheeler, E.A., Baas, P., 2016. Tyloses and gums: A review of structure, function and occurrence of vessel occlusions. IAWA Journal 37(2): 186-205. Doi: 10.1163/22941932-20160130
36. Desborough, M.J.R., Keeling, D.M., 2017. The aspirin story- From willow to wonder drug. British Journal of Haematology 177: 674-683. Doi: 10.1111/bjh.14520
37. Desch, H.E., Dinwoodie, J.M., 1996. Timber: Structure, properties, conversion and use, 7th ed. Red Globe Press / Macmillan Publishers, London, pp. 262-270
38. Donaldson, L., 2008. Microfibril angle: Measurement, variation and relationships- A review. IAWA Journal 29(4): 345-386. Doi: 10.1163/22941932-90000192
39. Dönmez, İ.E., Salman, H., 2021. Söğüt (Salix alba L.) odun ve kabuğunun kimyasal yapısı. Turkish Journal of Forestry 22(1): 38-42. Doi: 10.18182/tjf.854824
40. Evans, P.D., Urban, K., Chowdhury, M.J.A., 2008. Surface checking of wood is increased by photodegradation caused by ultraviolet and visible light. Wood Science and Technology 42(3): 251-265. Doi: 10.1007/s00226-007-0175-0
41. Feio, A., Machado, J.S., 2015. In-situ assessment of timber structural members: Combining information from visual strength grading and NDT/SDT methods- A review. Construction and Building Materials 101: 1157-1165. Doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.05.123
42. French, A.D., 2014. Idealized powder diffraction patterns for cellulose polymorphs. Cellulose 21(2): 885-896. Doi: 10.1007/s10570-013-0030-4
43. Gao, J., Jebrane, M., Terziev, N., Daniel, G., 2021. Enzymatic hydrolysis of the gelatinous layer in tension wood of Salix varieties as a measure of accessible cellulose for biofuels. Biotechnology for Biofuels 14(1): 141. Doi: 10.1186/s13068-021-01983-1
44. Gartner, B.L., 1995. Patterns of Xylem Variation Within a Tree and Their Hydraulic and Mechanical Consequences. Şu eserde: Gartner, B.L. (Ed.), Plant stems: Physiology and functional morphology, Academic Press, pp. 293-310
45. Goodell, B., 2003. Brown-rot Fungal Degradation of Wood: Our Evolving View. Şu eserde: ACS Symposium Series Vol. 845. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, p. 97-118. Doi: 10.1021/bk-2003-0845.ch006
46. Gritsch, C., Wan, Y., Mitchell, R.A., Shewry, P.R., Hanley, S.J., Karp, A., 2015. G-fibre cell wall development in willow stems during tension wood induction. Journal of Experimental Botany 66(20): 6447-6459. Doi: 10.1093/jxb/erv358
47. Gupta, A., Singh, N.B., Choudhary, P., Sharma, J.P., Sankhayan, H.P., 2014. Estimation of genetic variability, heritability and genetic gain for wood density and fibre length in 36 clones of white willow (Salix alba L.). International Journal of Agriculture, Environment and Biotechnology 7(2): 299-304. Doi: 10.5958/2230-732X.2014.00247.2
48. Hagel, S., Lüssenhop, P., Walk, S., Kirjoranta, S., Ritter, A., Bastidas Jurado, C. G., Mikkonen, K. S., Tenkanen, M., Körner, I., Saake, B., 2021. Valorization of urban street tree pruning residues in biorefineries by steam refining: conversion into fibers, emulsifiers, and biogas. Frontiers in Chemistry 9: 779609. Doi: 10.3389/fchem.2021.779609
49. Hideno, A., 2016. Comparison of the thermal degradation properties of crystalline and amorphous cellulose, as well as treated lignocellulosic biomass. BioResources 11(3): 6309-6319
50. Ihnát, V., Fišerová, M., Opálená, E., Russ, A., Boháček, Š., 2021. Chemical composition and fibre characteristics of branch wood of selected hardwood species. Acta Facultatis Xylologiae Zvolen 63(2): 17-30. Doi: 10.17423/afx.2021.63.2.02
51. Isebrands, J.G., Aronsson, P., Carlson, M., Ceulemans, R., Coleman, M., Dickinson, N., Dimitriou, J., Doty, S., Gardiner, E., Heinsoo, K., Johnson, J.D., Koo, Y.B., Kort, J., Kuzovkina, J., Licht, L., McCracken, A.R., McIvor, I., Mertens, P., Perttu, K., Riddell-Black, D., Robinson, B., Scarascia-Mugnozza, G., Schroeder, W.R., Stanturf, J., Volk, T.A., Weih, M., 2014. Environmental applications of Poplars and Willows. Şu eserde: Isebrands, J.G., Richardson, J. (Eds.), Poplars and Willows: Trees for Society and the Environment, CABI, Boston, p. 258-336
52. Karp, A., Shield, I., 2008. Bioenergy from plants and the sustainable yield challenge. New Phytologist 179: 15-32. Doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02432.x
53. Kaya, M., Bülbül, R., Çavuş, V., 2024. Söğüt ağacının (Salix alba L.) öz ve diri odununun bazı fiziksel ve mekanik özelliklerinin belirlenmesi. Turkish Journal of Forestry 25(3): 302-312. Doi: 10.18182/tjf.1437947
54. Keays, J.L., Hatton, J.V., Bailey, G.R., Neilson, R.W., 2015. Present and future uses of Canadian poplars in fibre and wood products. Utah State University, digitalcommons.usu.edu/aspen_bib/5234 (Ziyaret tarihi: 12.01.2026)
55. Keržič, E., Vek, V., Oven, P., Humar, M., 2024. Changes in wood durability due to leaching of biologically active substances (extractives) resulting from weathering. Case Studies in Construction Materials 21: e03921. Doi: 10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e03921
56. Koddenberg, T., 2025. A new dimension in wood anatomy education: Exploring softwood and hardwood structures in 3D. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 83(6): 201. Doi: 10.1007/s00107-025-02329-6
57. Konatowska, M., Rutkowski, P., Budka, A., Goliński, P., Szentner, K., Mleczek, M., 2021. The interactions between habitat, sex, biomass and leaf traits of different willow (Salix) genotypes. International Journal of Environmental Research 15(2): 395-412. Doi: 10.1007/s41742-021-00323-3
58. Kropat, M., Hubbe, M.A., Laleicke, F., 2020. Natural, accelerated, and simulated weathering of wood: A review. BioResources 15(4): 9998-10035
59. Krzyzaniak, M., Stolarski, M.J., Szczukowski, S., Tworkowski, J., 2015. Thermophysical and chemical properties of biomass obtained from willow coppice cultivated in one- and three-year rotation cycles. Journal of Elementology 20(1): 191-202. Doi: 10.5601/jelem.2014.19.4.695
60. Kučerová, V., Výbohová, E., 2014. Zmeny celulózy pri vodnej hydrolýze dreva vŕby bielej (Salix alba L.). Chemické Listy 108(11): 1084-1089
61. Kuzovkina, Y.A., Weih, M., Romero, M.A., Charles, J., Hust, S., McIvor, I., Karp, A., Trybush, S., Labrecque, M., Teodorescu, T.I., Singh, N.B., Smart, L.B., Volk, T.A., 2007. Salix: Botany and Global Horticulture. Şu eserde: Janick, J. (Ed.), Horticultural Reviews 34, Wiley, pp. 447-489. Doi: 10.1002/9780470380147.ch8
62. Lachenbruch, B., Moore, J.R., Evans, R., 2011. Radial Variation in Wood Structure and Function in Woody plants, and Hypotheses for Its Occurrence. Şu eserde: Meinzer, F., Lachenbruch, B., Dawson, T. (Eds.), Size- and Age-Related Changes in Tree Structure and Function, Tree Physiology Series, Vol. 4, Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 121-164. Doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-1242-3_5
63. Leitch, M., Miller, S., 2017. Optimizing Wood Utilization Based on Whole Tree Inherent Property Maps. Şu eserde: Kutnar, A., Muthu, S.S. (Eds.), Wood Is Good: Current Trends and Future Prospects in Wood Utilization, Springer, Singapore, pp. 3-17
64. Lima, M.D.R., Patrício, E.P.S., De Oliveira Barros Junior, U., De Assis, M.R., Xavier, C.N., Bufalino, L., Trugilho, P.F., Hein, P.R.G., De Paula Protásio, T., 2020. Logging wastes from sustainable forest management as alternative fuels for thermochemical conversion systems in Brazilian Amazon. Biomass and Bioenergy 140: 105660. Doi: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2020.105660
65. Lucaci, D., Visa, M., Duta, A., 2011. Copper removal on wood-fly ash substrates- Thermodynamic study. Revue Roumaine de Chimie 56(10-11): 1067-1074
66. Malik, A.H., Dar, G.H., Khuroo, A.A., Ganie, A.H., Munshi, M.H., Munshi, A.H., 2020. Worthful willows: Economic and ethnomedicinal uses of genus Salix L. in the Kashmir and Ladakh Himalayas. Journal of Himalayan Ecology and Sustainable Development 15: 1-17
67. Manzone, M., Gioelli, F., Balsari, P., 2019. Effects of different storage techniques on round-baled orchard-pruning residues. Energies 12(6): 1044. Doi: 10.3390/en12061044
68. Marková, I., Hroncova, E., Tomaskin, J., Turekova, I., 2018. Thermal analysis of granulometry selected wood dust particles. BioResources 13(4): 8041-8060. Doi: 10.15376/biores.13.4.8041-8060
69. Mattonai, M., Nardella, F., Zaccaroni, L., Ribechini, E., 2021. Effects of milling and UV pretreatment on the pyrolytic behavior and thermal stability of softwood and hardwood. Energy and Fuels 35(14): 11353-11365. Doi: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.1c01048
70. McKendry, P., 2002. Energy production from biomass (Part 1): Overview of biomass. Bioresource Technology 83(1): 37-46. Doi: 10.1016/S0960-8524(01)00118-3
71. Mészáros, E., Jakab, E., Várhegyi, G., 2007. TG/MS, Py-GC/MS and THM-GC/MS study of the composition and thermal behavior of extractive components of Robinia pseudoacacia. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 79(1-2): 61-70. Doi: 10.1016/j.jaap.2006.12.007
72. MGM. 2025. Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü. İl ve ilçeler istatistikleri. mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx (Ziyaret tarihi: 10.01.2026)
73. Mi, X., Li, Y., Qin, X., Li, J., 2023. Effects of natural weathering on aged wood from historic wooden building: Diagnosis of the oxidative degradation. Heritage Science 11(1): 1-12. Doi: 10.1186/s40494-023-00956-x
74. Moreira, L.D.S., Andrade, F.W.C., Balboni, B.M., Moutinho, V.H.P., 2022. Wood from forest residues: Technological properties and potential uses of branches of three species from Brazilian Amazon. Sustainability 14(18): 11176. Doi: 10.3390/su141811176
75. Nenning, T., Tockner, A., Konnerth, J., Gindl-Altmutter, W., Grabner, M., Hansmann, C., Lux, S., Pramreiter, M., 2024. Variability of mechanical properties of hardwood branches according to their position and inclination in the tree. Construction and Building Materials 419: 135448. Doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.135448
76. Noshiro, S., Suzuki, M., 2001. Ontogenetic wood anatomy of tree and subtree species of Nepalese Rhododendron (Ericaceae) and characterization of shrub species. IAWA Journal 22(1): 24-30.
77. Nurmi, J., 1999. The storage of logging residue for fuel. Biomass and Bioenergy 17(1): 41-47. Doi: 10.1016/S0961-9534(99)00023-9
78. Okai, R., Boateng, O., 2007. Analysis of sawn lumber production from logging residues of branchwood of Aningeria robusta and Terminalia ivorensis. European Journal of Forest Research 126(3): 385-390. Doi: 10.1007/s10342-006-0157-z
79. Oktaee, J., Lautenschläger, T., Günther, M., Neinhuis, C., Wagenführ, A., Lindner, M., Winkler, A., 2017. Characterization of willow bast fibers (Salix spp.) from short-rotation plantation as potential reinforcement for polymer composites. BioResources 12(2): 4270-4282
80. Paray, P.A., Gangoo, S.A., Masoodi, T.H., Qaiser, K.N., Islam, A.I., Maqbool, S., 2017. Selection, variation and heritability of candidate plus trees (CPTs) of Salix alba. Electronic Journal of Plant Breeding 8(3): 779-786. Doi: 10.5958/0975-928X.2017.00120.X
81. Park, S., Baker, J.O., Himmel, M.E., Parilla, P.A., Johnson, D.K., 2010. Cellulose crystallinity index: Measurement techniques and their impact on interpreting cellulase performance. Biotechnology for Biofuels 3(1): 10. Doi: 10.1186/1754-6834-3-10
82. Pedreño-Rojas, M.A., Morales-Conde, M.J., Rubio-de-Hita, P., Pérez-Gálvez, F., 2019. Impact of wetting-drying cycles on the mechanical properties and microstructure of wood waste-gypsum composites. Materials 12(11): 1829. Doi: 10.3390/ma12111829
83. Pędzik, M., Tomczak, K., Janiszewska-Latterini, D., Tomczak, A., Rogoziński, T., 2022. Management of forest residues as a raw material for the production of particleboards. Forests 13(11): 1933. Doi: 10.3390/f13111933
84. Picchi, G., Lombardini, C., Pari, L., Spinelli, R., 2018. Physical and chemical characteristics of renewable fuel obtained from pruning residues. Journal of Cleaner Production 171: 457-463. Doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.025
85. Poletto, M., Zattera, A.J., Forte, M.M., Santana, R.M., 2012. Thermal decomposition of wood: Influence of wood components and cellulose crystallite size. Bioresource Technology 109: 148-153. Doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2011.11.122
86. Praciak, A., Pasiecznik, N., Sheil, D., van Heist, M., Sassen, M., Correia, C.S., Dixon, C., Fyson, G., Rushforth, K., Teeling, C., 2013. The CABI Encyclopedia of Forest Trees. CABI, Oxfordshire, UK
87. Qi, J., Li, F., Jia, L., Zhang, X., Deng, S., Luo, B., Zhou, Y., Fan, M., Xia, Y., 2023. Fungal selectivity and biodegradation effects by white and brown rot fungi for wood biomass pretreatment. Polymers 15(8): 1957. Doi: 10.3390/polym15081957
88. Rasool, T., Srivastava, V.C., Khan, M.N.S., 2018. Bioenergy potential of Salix alba assessed through kinetics and thermodynamic analyses. Process Integration and Optimization for Sustainability 2: 259-268. Doi: 10.1007/s41660-018-0040-7
89. Rese, M., van Erven, G., Veersma, R.J., Alfredsen, G., Eijsink, V.G., Kabel, M.A., Tuveng, T.R., 2025. Detailed characterization of the conversion of hardwood and softwood lignin by a brown-rot basidiomycete. Biomacromolecules 26(2): 1063-1074. Doi: 10.1021/acs.biomac.4c01403
90. Roman, K., Roman, M., Szadkowska, D., Szadkowski, J., Grzegorzewska, E., 2021. Evaluation of physical and chemical parameters according to energetic willow (Salix viminalis L.) cultivation. Energies 14(10): 2968. Doi: 10.3390/en14102968
91. Rotherham, I.D., 2022. Willows in the farming landscape: A forgotten eco-cultural icon. Biodiversity and Conservation 31: 2495-2513. Doi: 10.1007/s10531-021-02324-2
92. Rönnberg-Wästljung, A. C., Dufour, L., Gao, J., Hansson, P.-A., Herrmann, A., Jebrane, M., Johansson, A.-C., Kalita, S., Molinder, R., Nordh, N.-E., Ohlsson, J. A., Passoth, V., Sandgren, M., Schnürer, A., Shi, A., Terziev, N., Daniel, G., Weih, M., 2022. Optimized utilization of Salix—Perspectives for the genetic improvement toward sustainable biofuel value chains. GCB Bioenergy 14: 1128–1144. Doi: 10.1111/gcbb.12991
93. Ryniewicz, A., Pietruch, M., Ryniewicz, A.M., Bojko, Ł., 2024. Tests of the mechanical and acoustic parameters of electric guitar bodies. Drewno: Prace Naukowe, Doniesienia, Komunikaty 67(214). Doi: 10.53502/wood-194995
94. Schubert, M., Panzarasa, G., Burgert, I., 2022. Sustainability in wood products: a new perspective for handling natural diversity. Chemical Reviews 123(5): 1889-1924. Doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00360
95. Segal, L., Creely, J.J., Martin, A.E., Conrad, C.M., 1959. An empirical method for estimating the degree of crystallinity of native cellulose using the X-ray diffractometer. Textile Research Journal 29: 786-794. Doi: 10.1177/004051755902901003
96. Sharma, M., Altaner, C.M., 2014. Properties of young Araucaria heterophylla (Norfolk Island pine) reaction and normal wood. Holzforschung 68: 817-821. Doi: 10.1515/hf-2013-0219
97. Shmulsky, R., Jones, P.D., 2011. Forest Products and Wood Science: An Introduction, 6th ed., John Wiley and Sons Ltd., UK
98. Serapiglia, M.J., Cameron, K.D., Stipanovic, A.J., Smart, L.B., 2009. Analysis of biomass composition using high-resolution thermogravimetric analysis and percent bark content for the selection of shrub willow bioenergy crop varieties. BioEnergy Research 2(1): 1-9. Doi: 10.1007/s12155-008-9028-4
99. Sleight, N.J., Volk, T.A., Johnson, G.A., 2016. Change in yield between first and second rotations in willow (Salix spp.) biomass crops is strongly related to the level of first rotation yield. BioEnergy Research 9: 270-287. Doi: 10.1007/s12155-015-9684-0
100. Slopiecka, K., Bartocci, P., Fantozzi, F., 2012. Thermogravimetric analysis and kinetic study of poplar wood pyrolysis. Applied Energy 97: 491-497. Doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.12.056
101. Španić, N., Jambreković, V., Klarić, M., 2018. Basic chemical composition of wood as a parameter in raw material selection for biocomposite production. Cellulose Chemistry and Technology 52(3-4): 163-169. Doi: 10.35812/CelluloseChemTechnol.2018.52.18
102. Stolarski, M.J., Gil, Ł., Krzyżaniak, M., Olba-Zięty, E., Wu, A.M., 2024. Willow, poplar, and black locust debarked wood as feedstock for energy and other purposes. Energies 17(7): 1535. Doi: 10.3390/en17071535
103. Stolarski, M.J., Krzyżaniak, M., Warmiński, K., Załuski, D., Olba-Zięty, E., 2020. Willow biomass as energy feedstock: The effect of habitat, genotype and harvest rotation on thermophysical properties and elemental composition. Energies 13(16): 4130. Doi: 10.3390/en13164130
104. Stolarski, M., Mleczek, M., Szczukowski, S., Goliński, P., Waliszewska, B., Szentner, K., Rutkowski, P., Krzyżaniak, M., 2015. Characteristics of thermophysical parameters of selected Salix taxa with elemental analysis. International Journal of Green Energy 12(12): 1272-1279. Doi: 10.1080/15435075.2014.895734
105. Suansa, N.I., Al-Mefarrej, H.A., 2020. Branch wood properties and potential utilization of this variable resource. BioResources 15(1): 479-491. Doi: 10.15376/biores.15.1.479-491
106. Thurner, F., Mann, U., 1981. Kinetic investigation of wood pyrolysis. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Process Design and Development 20(3): 482-488
107. Thybring, E.E., Fredriksson, M., 2023. Wood and moisture. Şu eserde: Kutnar, A., Muthu, S.S. (Eds.), Springer Handbook of Wood Science and Technology, Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp. 355-397. Doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-81315-4_7
108. TS EN ISO 6507-1, 2023. Türk Standardları Enstitüsü. Metalik Malzemeler- Vickers Sertlik Deneyi- Bölüm 1: Deney Metodu. Ankara
109. Tyree, M.T., Zimmermann, M.H., 2002. Hydraulic architecture of whole plants. Şu eserde: Tyree, M.T., Zimmermann, M.H., Xylem Structure and the Ascent of Sap, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, pp. 212-216
110. Van Casteren, A., Sellers, W.I., Thorpe, S.K.S., Coward, S., Crompton, R.H., Ennos, A.R., 2012. Why don’t branches snap? The mechanics of bending failure in three temperate angiosperm trees. Trees 26(3): 789-797. Doi: 10.1007/s00468-011-0650-y
111. Van Rooij, A., Badel, E., Barczi, J.F., Caraglio, Y., Alméras, T., Gril, J., 2023. Modelling the growth stress in tree branches: Eccentric growth vs. reaction wood. Peer Community Journal 3: e78. Doi: 10.24072/pcjournal.308
112. Van Starrenburg, C., Van Ijzerloo, L., Van de Koppel, J., Van der Wal, D., Bouma, T.J., 2025. Are willows suitable for flood defense? Quantifying mechanical properties of willow species. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 320: 109306. Doi: 10.1016/j.ecss.2025.109306
113. Volk, T.A., Verwijst, T., Tharakan, P.J., Abrahamson, L.P., White, E.H., 2004. Growing fuel: A sustainability assessment of willow biomass crops. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2(8): 411-418. Doi: 10.1890/1540-9295
114. Wagner, L., Bos, C., Bader, T.K., De Borst, K., 2015. Effect of water on the mechanical properties of wood cell walls: Results of a nanoindentation study. BioResources 10(3): 4011-4025
115. Wagner, N.D., He, L., Hörandl, E., 2021. The evolutionary history, diversity, and ecology of willows (Salix L.) in the European Alps. Diversity 13: 146. Doi: 10.3390/d13040146
116. Wang, J., Minami, E., Asmadi, M., Kawamoto, H., 2021. Thermal degradation of hemicellulose and cellulose in ball-milled cedar and beech wood. Journal of Wood Science 67(1): 32. Doi: 10.1186/s10086-021-01962-y
117. Wang, R., Dang, X., Gao, Y., Yang, X., Liang, Y., Zhao, C., 2020. Alternated desorption-absorption accelerated aging of Salix psammophila sand barrier. BioResources 15(3): 6696.
118. Wang, R., Meng, Z., Gao, Y., 2024a. Chemical characteristics of Salix psammophila sand barriers are accelerated degradation by ultraviolet irradiation and water. Frontiers in Plant Science 15: 1470347. Doi: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1470347
119. Wang, X., Zhao, W., Zhang, Y., Shi, J., Shan, S., Cai, L., 2024b. Exploring wood micromechanical structure: Impact of microfibril angle and crystallinity on cell wall strength. Journal of Building Engineering 90: 109452. Doi: 10.1016/j.jobe.2024.109452
120. Wilkinson, J.M., Evans, E.J., Bilsborrow, P.E., Wright, C., Hewison, W.O., Pilbeam, D.J., 2007. Yield of willow cultivars at different planting densities in a commercial short rotation coppice in the North of England. Biomass and Bioenergy 31: 469-474. Doi: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2007.01.020
121. Wronka, M., Wojnicz, D., Wronka, A., Kowaluk, G., 2025. Evaluation of Hazel-Derived Particleboard as a Substitute for Conventional Wood-Based Composites. Materials 18(16): 3773. Doi: 10.3390/ma18163773
122. Xu, E., Wang, D., Lin, L., 2020. Chemical structure and mechanical properties of wood cell walls treated with acid and alkali solution. Forests 11(1): 87. Doi: 10.3390/f11010087
123. Yang, H., Yan, R., Chen, H., Lee, D.H., Zheng, C., 2007. Characteristics of hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin pyrolysis. Fuel 86(12-13): 1781-1788. Doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2006.12.013
124. Zabel, R.A., Morrell, J.J., 2020. The Decay Setting: Some Structural, Chemical, and Moisture Features of Wood in Relation to Decay Development. Şu eserde: Wood Microbiology. Academic Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 149-183
125. Zobel, B.J., Sprague, J.R., 2012. Juvenile wood in forest trees. Springer Science & Business Media, Berlin. Doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-72126-7