Development and Psychometric Properties of the Gender Stereotypes towards Children Scale in a Parent Sample

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 25 Sayı: 2, 257 - 275

Hatice Işık Başak Şahin Acar

Öz

This study aims to develop a scale to assess parents' gender stereotypes towards children and to examine the psychometric properties of this scale. The research was conducted with two different parent samples (N = 597 and N = 306). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses identified a total of 25 items under four different dimensions for girls and boys. Parents' expectations of their sons and daughters are divided into prescriptive and proscriptive in the context of gender stereotypes. The validity and reliability of the scale were supported by the conducted analyses. In this context, the scale emerges as a significant tool for understanding parental gender-based expectations for girls and boys in daily life and investigating the relationship of these expectations with the developmental process.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Gender Roles, Stereotypes, Parents, Children

Çocuklara Yönelik Toplumsal Cinsiyet Kalıpyargıları Ölçeğinin Ebeveyn Örnekleminde Geliştirilmesi ve Psikometrik Özellikleri

Öz

Bu çalışma, ebeveynlerin çocuklara yönelik toplumsal cinsiyet kalıpyargılarını değerlendiren bir ölçek geliştirmeyi ve bu ölçeğin psikometrik özelliklerini incelemeyi hedeflemektedir. Çalışma, iki farklı ebeveyn örnekleminde (N = 597 ve N = 306) yürütülmüştür. Açımlayıcı ve doğrulayıcı faktör analizleri, kız ve oğlan çocukları için dört farklı boyut altında toplam 25 maddeyi işaret etmiştir. Ebeveynlerin kız ve oğlan çocuklarından beklentileri, toplumsal cinsiyet kalıpyargıları bağlamında teşvik edilen ve yasaklanan olarak birbirinden ayrılmıştır. Ölçeğin geçerlik ve güvenirliği, yapılan analizlerle desteklenmiştir. Bu bağlamda, ölçek, ebeveynlerin günlük yaşamda kız ve oğlan çocuklarından toplumsal cinsiyete dayalı beklentilerini anlamada ve bu beklentilerin gelişimsel süreçle ilişkisini araştırmada önemli bir araç olarak öne çıkmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Toplumsal cinsiyet rolleri, Kalıpyargılar, Ebeveynler, Çocuklar

Kaynakça

• Ali, T. S., Ali, S. S., Nadeem, S., Memon, Z., Soofi, S., Madhani, F., Karim, Y., Mohammed, S., ve Bhutta, Z. A. (2022). Perpetuation of gender discrimination in Pakistani society: Results from a scoping review and qualitative study conducted in three provinces of Pakistan. BMC Women's Health, 22(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-022-02011-6
• Ariyani, E. D. ve Hadiani, D. (2019). Gender differences in students' interpersonal communication. Responsible Education, Learning and Teaching in Emerging Economies, 1(2), 67-74. https://doi.org/10.26710/relate.v1i2.1125
• Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238
• Blakemore, J. E. O., ve Hill, C. A. (2008). The child gender socialization scale: A measure to compare traditional and feminist parents. Sex Roles, 58(3–4), 192– 207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9333-y
• Blakemore, J. E. O., Berenbaum, S. A., ve Liben, L. S. (2009). Gender development. In Psychology Press. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
• Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32(7), 513–530. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.32.7.513
• Bronfenbrenner, U. (1992). Ecological systems theory. R. Vasta (Ed.), Six theories of child development: Revised formulations and current issues (s. 187–249) içinde. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
• Burge, P. L. (1981). Parental child-reading sex-role attitudes related to social issue sexrole attitudes and selected demographic variables. Home Economics Research Journal, 9(3), 193–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077727X8100900302
• Canal, P., Garnham, A. ve Oakhill, J. (2015). Beyond gender stereotypes in language comprehension: Self sex-role descriptions affect the brain’s potentials associated with agreement processing. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01953
• Čaňo, T. and Hofmeister, H. (2022). The intergenerational transmission of gender: Paternal influences on children's gender attitudes. Journal of Marriage and Family, 85(1), 193-214. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12863
• Castaño, A. M., Gómez, Y. F., ve Izquierdo, A. L. G. (2019). “Why can’t i become a manager?”—A systematic review of gender stereotypes and organizational discrimination. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(10), 1813. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101813
• Chen, I., Zhang, H., Wei, B., ve Guo, Z. (2019). The model of children's social adjustment under the gender‐roles absence in single‐parent families. International Journal of Psychology, 54(3), 316-324. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12477
• Chen, I. J., Wang, X., Sun, Z., Yang, M. Ve Tang P. (2023). Intergenerational transmission of parental child-rearing gender-role attitudes and its influence on gender roles in single-parent families. [Yayınlanmak üzere gönderilen makale]. BMC Psychology. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2971842/v1
• del Río, M. F., Strasser, K., Cvencek, D., Susperreguy, M. I., ve Meltzoff, A. N. (2019). Chilean kindergarten children’s beliefs about mathematics: Family matters. Developmental Psychology, 55(4), 687–702. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000658
• Dulla, N., ve Priyadarshini, S. (2021). Gendered parenting influence on children’s socialization to gender stereotype in marital life. Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities, 13(1), 1-19. https://dx.doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v13n1.28
• Freeman, N. K. (2007). Preschoolers’ perceptions of gender appropriate toys and their parents’ beliefs about genderized behaviors: Miscommunication, mixed messages, or hidden truths? Early Childhood Education Journal, 34(5), 357– 366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-006-0123-x
• Glick, P., ve Fiske, S. T. (1997). Hostile and benevolent sexism: Measuring ambivalent sexist attitudes toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(1), 119–135. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00104.x
• Glick, P., ve Fiske, S. T. (1999). The ambivalence toward men inventory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 23(3), 519–536. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1999.tb00379.x
• Halpern, H. P., ve Perry-Jenkins, M. (2016). Parents’ gender ideology and gendered behavior as predictors of children’s gender-role attitudes: A longitudinal exploration. Sex Roles, 74(11–12), 527–542. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0539-0
• Heinze, J. E., Heinze, K. L., Davis, M. M., Butchart, A. T., Singer, D. C., ve Clark, S. J. (2014). Gender role beliefs and parents’ support for athletic participation. Youth and Society, 49(5), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X14553580
• Hoffman, L. W., ve Kloska, D. D. (1995). Parents' gender-based attitudes toward marital roles and child rearing: Development and validation of new measures. Sex Roles, 32(5-6), 273-295. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544598
• Horn, J. L. (1965). A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrica, 30(2), 179–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02289447
• Işık, H. (2014). How third grade female students and their mothers perceice gender streotypes and parents restrictions based on gender stereotypic expectations: A within-culture comparision in Turkey. [Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi]. Middle East Technical University.
• Jacques, K. P., Feinstein, B. A., Darling, A. K., ve Humphreys, K. L. (2022). An analogue study investigating differential parenting of gender conforming and nonconforming boys. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 51(7), 3569-3581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-022-02388-3
• Joreskog, K. G., ve Sorbom, D. (1984). Advances in factor analysis and structural equation models. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
• Koenig, A. M. (2018). Comparing prescriptive and descriptive gender stereotypes about children, adults, and the elderly. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01086
• Kollmayer, M., Schultes, M. T., Schober, B., Hodosi, T., ve Spiel, C. (2018). Parents’ judgments about the desirability of toys for their children: Associations with gender role attitudes, gender-typing of toys, and demographics. Sex Roles, 79(5-6), 329–341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0882-4
• Krueger, J. (2001). The psychology of social categorization. N. J. Smelser ve P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (1. Baskı., Vol. 12, s. 14219–14223) içinde. Oxford: Elsevier.
• Maccoby, E. E. (1988). Gender as a social category. Developmental Psychology, 24(6), 755–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/030639686600800101
• MacMullin, L. N., Bokeloh, L. M., Nabbijohn, A. N., Santarossa, A., van der Miesen, A. I., Peragine, D. E., ve VanderLaan, D. P. (2021). Examining the relation between gender nonconformity and psychological well-being in children: The roles of peers and parents. Archives of sexual behavior, 50, 823-841. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01832-6
• Martin, C. L. (1995). Stereotypes about children with traditional and nontraditional gender roles. Sex Roles, 33(11–12), 727–751. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544776
• Prentice D. A., ve Carranza E. (2002). What women and men should be, shouldn’t be, are allowed to be, and don’t have to be: The contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 269–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00066
• Retelsdorf, J., Schwartz, K., ve Asbrock, F. (2015). “Michael can’t read!” Teachers’ gender stereotypes and boys’ reading self-concept. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(1), 186–194. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037107
• Sakalli-Uǧurlu, N. (2002). Çelişik Duygulu Cinsiyetçilik Ölçeǧi: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 17(50), 47–58
• Sakallı-Uğurlu, N. (2008). Erkeklere İlişkin Çelişik Duygular Ölçeği’nin Türkçe’ye uyarlanması. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 11(21), 1–11.
• Salla, M. and Feixas, G. (2023). Dyadic effects of interpersonal perception on the quality of couple relationships: idealization and accuracy matter. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 49(2), 463-480. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.12633
• Sanborn-Overby, U. A., ve Powlishta, K. K. (2020). Differential reactions to male and female gender-role violations: Testing the sexual orientation hypothesis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(7), 2531-2546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01803-x
• Shutts, K., Banaji, M. R., ve Spelke, E. S. (2010). Social categories guide young children’s preferences for novel objects. Developmental Science, 13(4), 599– 610. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00913.x
• Spivey, L., Huebner, D., ve Diamond, L. (2018). Parent responses to childhood gender nonconformity: effects of parent and child characteristics. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 5(3), 360-370. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000279
• Sullivan, J., Ciociolo, A., ve Moss-Racusin, C. A. (2022). Establishing the content of gender stereotypes across development. Plos one, 17(7), e0263217. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263217
• Sümer, N. (2000). Yapısal eşitlik modelleri: Temel kavramlar ve örnek uygulamalar. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 3(6), 49–74
• Triana, M. d. C., Jayasinghe, M., Pieper, J. R., Delgado, D. M., ve Li, M. (2018). Perceived workplace gender discrimination and employee consequences: A meta-analysis and complementary studies considering country context. Journal of Management, 45(6), 2419-2447. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206318776772
• van de Rozenberg, T. M., van der Pol, L. D., van Esveld, S., Groeneveld, M. G., Kroes, A. D., ve Mesman, J. (2024). The role of parents in predicting gender‐stereotypic attitudes towards HEED occupations and gender‐stereotypic interest in these careers. European Journal of Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.3029
• Velde, S., Delaruelle, K., Eekert, N., ve Bracke, P. (2020). Perceived group discrimination based on one’s gender and the gender gap in depression in Europe. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 49(6), 598-605. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494820939024
• Yang, L., Yu, L., Kandasamy, K., Shi, F., ve Zhang, W. (2022). Non-pathological psychological distress among mainland Chinese in Canada and its sociodemographic risk factors amidst the pandemic. Healthcare, 10(11), 2326. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare10112326
• Zhang, I. W. (2000).Relative study among parents’ gender role, rearing attitude and students’ academic orientation, academic achievement in Tainan. [Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi] Tainan Normal College.