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Macroecomic Determinants of Income Inequality: GMM Panel Data Analysis for Türkiye and Emerging Market Economies

Sayı: 20 24 Mayıs 2026
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Macroecomic Determinants of Income Inequality: GMM Panel Data Analysis for Türkiye and Emerging Market Economies

Öz

Income inequality remains one of the foremost socioeconomic challenges of the 21st century, yet the macroeconomic drivers of this inequality in emerging market economies remain insufficiently understood. This study examines the macroeconomic determinants of income inequality using an unbalanced panel dataset covering 20 emerging market economies over the period 2000-2024. A review of the existing literature reveals that while the two-step System Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) estimator—developed by Arellano and Bover (1995) and Blundell and Bond (1998)—has been widely applied to developed and Asian economies, its use for a broad panel of emerging markets, and for Türkiye in particular, remains limited. This estimator is employed to address endogeneity, dynamic panel bias, and unobserved country-specific heterogeneity inherent in inequality dynamics. The findings reveal that trade openness significantly reduces income inequality, while unemployment exerts a strong and robust positive effect. Inflation exhibits a non-linear U-shaped relationship with inequality, turning positive only above approximately 11 percent annually. Evidence for the Kuznets hypothesis is found to be modest and specification-sensitive. Türkiye-specific analysis demonstrates that inflation’s inequality-increasing effect is approximately 50 percent stronger than in peer economies, with inflation volatility generating additional distributional pressure. Diagnostic tests, including the Hansen and Arellano-Bond tests, confirm instrument validity and the absence of second-order serial correlation across all specifications. These results carry important policy implications for emerging market economies: achieving price stability, supporting employment, and maintaining trade openness emerge as the primary levers for inclusive and equitable growth.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Income inequality, Gini coefficient, System GMM, Kuznets hypothesis, Emerging markets

Kaynakça

  1. Alesina, A., & Perotti, R. (1994). The political economy of growth: A critical survey of the recent literature. The World Bank Economic Review, 8(3), 351-371.
  2. Alves, J., Baptista, F., & Coelho, J. C. (2024). The impact of labor share on economic growth: A panel data analysis for European Union. REM Working Paper 0319-2024, Research in Economics and Mathematics, ISEG - Lisbon School of Economics and Management.
  3. Arellano, M., & Bond, S. (1991). Some tests of specification for panel data: Monte Carlo evidence and an application to employment equations. Review of Economic Studies, 58(2), 277-297.
  4. Arellano, M., & Bover, O. (1995). Another look at the instrumental variable estimation of error-components models. Journal of Econometrics, 68(1), 29-51.
  5. Asian Development Bank. (2015). Inequality in Asia and the Pacific: Trends, drivers, and policy implications. ADB Economics Working Paper Series No. 426.
  6. Asteriou, D., Dimelis, S., & Moudatsou, A. (2014). Globalization and income inequality: A panel data econometric approach for the EU27 countries. Economic Modelling, 36, 592–599.
  7. Baltagi, B. H. (2021). Econometric analysis of panel data (6th ed.). Springer.
  8. Banerjee, A. V., & Newman, A. F. (1993). Occupational choice and the process of development. Journal of Political Economy, 101(2), 274-298.
  9. Barro, R. J. (2000). Inequality and growth in a panel of countries. Journal of Economic Growth, 5(1), 5-32.
  10. Benabou, R. (1996). Inequality and growth. NBER Macroeconomics Annual, 11, 11-74.

Kaynak Göster

APA
Beşballı, S. G. (2026). Macroecomic Determinants of Income Inequality: GMM Panel Data Analysis for Türkiye and Emerging Market Economies. Ömer Halisdemir Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 20, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.25287/ohuiibf.1917351
AMA
1.Beşballı SG. Macroecomic Determinants of Income Inequality: GMM Panel Data Analysis for Türkiye and Emerging Market Economies. ÖHÜİİBFD. 2026;(20):1-22. doi:10.25287/ohuiibf.1917351
Chicago
Beşballı, Sinem Gözde. 2026. “Macroecomic Determinants of Income Inequality: GMM Panel Data Analysis for Türkiye and Emerging Market Economies”. Ömer Halisdemir Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, sy 20: 1-22. https://doi.org/10.25287/ohuiibf.1917351.
EndNote
Beşballı SG (01 Mayıs 2026) Macroecomic Determinants of Income Inequality: GMM Panel Data Analysis for Türkiye and Emerging Market Economies. Ömer Halisdemir Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi 20 1–22.
IEEE
[1]S. G. Beşballı, “Macroecomic Determinants of Income Inequality: GMM Panel Data Analysis for Türkiye and Emerging Market Economies”, ÖHÜİİBFD, sy 20, ss. 1–22, May. 2026, doi: 10.25287/ohuiibf.1917351.
ISNAD
Beşballı, Sinem Gözde. “Macroecomic Determinants of Income Inequality: GMM Panel Data Analysis for Türkiye and Emerging Market Economies”. Ömer Halisdemir Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi. 20 (01 Mayıs 2026): 1-22. https://doi.org/10.25287/ohuiibf.1917351.
JAMA
1.Beşballı SG. Macroecomic Determinants of Income Inequality: GMM Panel Data Analysis for Türkiye and Emerging Market Economies. ÖHÜİİBFD. 2026;:1–22.
MLA
Beşballı, Sinem Gözde. “Macroecomic Determinants of Income Inequality: GMM Panel Data Analysis for Türkiye and Emerging Market Economies”. Ömer Halisdemir Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, sy 20, Mayıs 2026, ss. 1-22, doi:10.25287/ohuiibf.1917351.
Vancouver
1.Sinem Gözde Beşballı. Macroecomic Determinants of Income Inequality: GMM Panel Data Analysis for Türkiye and Emerging Market Economies. ÖHÜİİBFD. 01 Mayıs 2026;(20):1-22. doi:10.25287/ohuiibf.1917351