Avar Kağanlığı'nın iktisadi tarihi

Yıl 2021, , 1091 - 1108, 31.07.2021

Ünal Eryılmaz

https://doi.org/10.25287/ohuiibf.929734

Cited By: 1

Öz

6.ile 8 yüzyıllar arasında hüküm süren Avarlar, Orta Çağ Avrupası’nın tarihini ve kaderini belirlemişlerdir.Avarların kendilerine ait günümüze ulaşan yazılı metinlerin olmayışı Avar tarihinin aydınlatılmasındayerleşim yeri ve mezar yeri arkeolojik çalışmalarını çok daha önemli kılmaktadır. Avarlar konusunda pek çokakademik çalışma bulunmakla birlikte Avarların iktisadi hayatı ve faaliyetleri üzerine odaklanmış çalışmalaryok denecek düzeydedir. Bu çalışmada, Avar ekonomisinin başlıca yapı taşlarını oluşturan sektörler olaraksavaş ekonomisi, tarım ve hayvancılık, ticaret, madencilik ve metal işleme ile çömlekçilik sektörleri detaylı birşekilde incelenmiştir. Erken dönemde göçebe yaşam tarzına özgü yağma ve savaş ekonomisinin yanı sırakonar-göçer hayvancılıkla uğraşan Avarların bilhassa bitkisel gıda, gündelik eşyalar ve tekstil ürünlerindeçevre kabilelere bağımlı oldukları gözlenmiştir. Erken dönemin sonlarından itibaren kademeli olarak yarıgöçebe-yarı yerleşik hayata geçişle birlikte ev ekonomisi şeklinde başlayan bazı zanaatların zamanla yerel vebölgesel üretime dönük faaliyetlere dönüştüğü ve sınırlı bir toplumsal iş bölümünün ortaya çıktığıgörülmektedir. Tuz, çömlek ve hayvan ticaretinin de Avar ekonomisinde önemli bir yer tuttuğu, dahası Avarfetihlerinde ticari saiklerin önemli bir motif olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Avar mezarlarına konulan eşyalarınincelenmesinden toplumsal katmanlaşmanın var olduğu ve yerleşik hayata geçişle birlikte söz konusukatmanlaşmanın daha da belirginleştiği değerlendirilmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Avar, Bizans, Frank, Orta Çağ, Ekonomik Arkeoloji

Economic history of Avar Khaganate

Öz

The Avars, who ruled between the 6th and 8th centuries, determined the history and fate of Medieval Europe. The absence of surviving written texts of the Avars makes the archaeological studies of the settlement and burial place important in enlightening the history of Avar. In this study, the war economy, agriculture and livestock, trade, mining and metalworking, and pottery sectors are examined in detail, which are the main building blocks of the Avar economy. In the early period, it was observed that Avars, who were engaged in looting and war economy peculiar to the nomadic lifestyle, as well as nomadic livestock, were especially dependent on the surrounding tribes for plant food, daily goods, and textile products. It is seen that some crafts that started as a home economy with the gradual transition to semi-nomadic-semi-sedentary life from the end of the early period turned into activities for local and regional production over time. It is understood that the trade of salt, pottery, and animals occupies an important place in the Avar economy. From the examination of the items placed in the Avar tombs, it is evaluated that there is social stratification and this stratification becomes more evident with the transition to settled life.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Avars, Byzantine, Franks, Middle Age, Economic archaeology.

Kaynakça

• Bálint, C. (2010). Avar gold smith work from the perspective of cultural history. In C. Entwistle & N. Adams (Eds.), Intelligible Beauty: Recent Research on Byzantine Jewellery (pp. 146-160). British Museum Research Publication.
• Batizi, Z. (2018). Mining in medieval Hungary. In J. Laszlovszky, B. Nagy, P. Szabó & A. Vadas (Eds.), The Economy of Medieval Hungary, (pp. 166-181). Leider: Brill Publisher.
• Baumer, C. (2014). The history of Central Asia. London: Tauris.
• Blockley, R.C. (1985). The history of Menander the Guardsman: introductory essay, text, translation and historiographical notes. Liverpool: Francis Cairns Publications Ltd.
• Bognár, B. K. (2016). A special ceramic type: The late Avar yellow pottery. Hungarian Archaeology, 22-28.
• Bugarski, I. (2008). The geomorphological matrix as a starting point for determining the position of avar-time settlements in pannonia: the example of the bačka region. Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt, 38(3), 438-439.
• Bugarski, I. (2009). Nekropole iz doba antike i ranog srednjeg veka na lokalitetu Čik (Cemeteries from antiquity and early middle ages at čik) (Posebna izdanja 46). Beograd: Arheološki institut, Gradski muzej Bečej.
• Cosma, C. (2015). Avar warriors in Transylvania, Sătmar and Maramureș, Crișana and Banat. Archaeological landmarks on the political status of western Romania in the Avar Khaganate. In C. Cosma (Ed.), Warriors, weapons, and harness from the 5th–10th centuries in the Carpathian Basin, Ethnic and cultural interferences in the 1st Millennium B.C. to the 1st Millennium A.D. (pp. 251-280). Cluj‐Napoca: Mega Publishing House.
• Cosma, C. (2016). Notes on the economy structure in Crişana, Sătmar and Maramureş during the 8th-10th centuries AD. Banatica, 26(I), 169-190.
• Csáky, V., Gerber, D., Koncz, I., Csiky, G., Mende, B. G., Szeifert, B., Egyed, B., Pamjav, H., Marcsik, A., Molnár, E., Pálfi, G., Gulyás, A., Kovacsóczy, B., Lezsák, G., M., Lőrinczy, G., Szécsényi-Nagy, A., Vida, T. (2020). Genetic insights into the social organisation of the Avar period elite in the 7th century AD Carpathian Basin. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 1-14.
• Curta, F. (2016). Avar Blitzkrieg, Slavic and Bulgar raiders, and Roman special ops: mobile warriors in the sixth-century Balkans. In I. Zimonyi & O. Karatay (Eds.), Central Eurasia in the middle age, studies in honour of Peter B. Golden (pp. 69-90). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag Publisher.
• Curta, F. (2017). Coins, forts and commercial exchanges in the sixth and early seventh-century Balkans. Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 439-454.
• Daim, F. (2003). Avars and Avar archaeology, an Introduction. In H.-W. Goetz, J. Jarmut, & W. Pohl (Eds.), Regna and gentes. The relationship between late antique and early medieval peoples and kingdoms in the transformation of the Roman world (pp. 463-570). Leiden, Boston: Brill Publisher.
• Einhard-Garrod, H. W., & Mowat, R. B. (1915). Einhard’s life of Charlemagne: The Latin text. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
• Firth, R. (1967). Themes in economic anthropology. Routledge, London.
• Gáll, E. (2014). The Avar conquest and what followed. Some ideas on the process of ‘avarisation’ of Transylvanian Basin (6th-7th centuries). In Archäologische Beiträge - Gedenkschrift zun hundertsten Geburtstag von Kurt Horedt. Patrimonium Archaeologicum Transylvanicum (7) (pp. 295-323). Cluj-Napoca: Editura Mega Publisher.
• Gáll, E., & Romát, S. (2016). The current state of archaeological research on the Avar period in the banat: observations on the changes in the Avar settlement territory in this region and on some early medieval cultural-sociological phenomena. In Zwischen byzanz und der steppe. Budapest: MTA BTK Régészeti Intézet.
• Gandila, A. (2018). Cultural encounters on Byzantium's northern frontier, c. AD 500–700: coins, artifacts and history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Garnsey, P., Hopkins, K., & Whittaker, C. R. (1983). Trade in the ancient economy. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Gary, F. M. (2008). Encyclopedia of Archaeology, 2, Elsevier.
• Greatrex, G. (Ed.). Phenix, R. R., Horn, C. B., Brock, S., & Witakowski, W. (Çev.). (2011). The chronicle of pseudo-Zachariah rhetor: church and war in late Antiquity. Liverpool University Press.
• Heinrich-Tamaska, O. (2008). Avar-age metalworking technologies in the Carpathian basin (Sixth to eighth century). In F. Curta (Ed.), The Other Europe in the Middle Ages, Avars, Bulgars, Khazars and Cumans (pp. 237-261). Leiden: Brill Publisher.
• Herold, H. (2014). Insights into the chronology and economy of the Avar Khaganate and the post-Avar Period: Pottery production and use in the Carpathian Basin from the late 6th to the 10th century AD. Acta Archaeologica Carpathica, 49, 207-229.
• Herold, H. (2018). Settlements of the Avar Khaganate. Antaeus, 35-36, 187-203.
• Kafesoğlu, İ. (1998). Türk Milli Kültürü (17. Baskı). İstanbul: Ötüken Neşriyat.
• Kardaras, G. (2018). Byzantium and the Avars, 6th-9th century AD: political, diplomatic and cultural relations. Brill, Leiden.
• Khazanov, A. M. (2019). Steppe nomads in the Eurasian trade. Chungara Revista de Antropología Chilena, 51(1), 85-93.
• Kiss, A. (2003). Archäologische und numismatische Angabenzur Siedlungsgeschichte des Donau-Theiß-Zwischenstromlandes in der zweiten Hälfte des 5. und der ersten Hälfte des 6. Jahrhunderts. In R. Bunardžić, Ž. Mikić & S. A. Društvo (Eds.), Spomenica Jovana Kovačevića, Memorial de Jovan Kovačević. Beograd.
• Kory, R. W. (2002). Arkeolojik Bir Araştırma - Avar Yerleşimleri. Türkler, 2, 664–673.
• László, G. (1955). Études archéologiques sur l'histoire de la société des Avars. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado Publisher.
• Lemerle, P. (1979). Les Plus Anciens recueils des miracles de saint Demetrius et la pénétration des slaves dans les Balkans. Paris: Éditions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique.
• Livius.org, Retrieved from: https://www.livius.org/pictures/hungary/aquincum/aquincum-museum-pieces/aquincum-model-of-a-farm-from-the-avar-period (27.08.2020).
• MacMaster, T. J. (2015). The transformative impact of the slave trade on the Roman world, 580-720 (PhD dissertation). The University of Edinburgh.
• Madgearu, A. (2001). Salt trade and warfare in early medieval Transylvania. Ephemeris Napocensis, XI, 271-283.
• Mango, C. (1990). Short History. Washington DC: Dumbarton Oaks Publisher.
• Maurice, O. & Dennis, G. T. (1984). Maurice’s strategikon: Handbook of Byzantine military strategy. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press.
• Metmuseum.org, Erişim adresi: https://www.metmuseum.org/search-results#!/search?q=Avar (27.08.2020).
• Noche-Dowdy, L. (2015). Multi-isotope analysis to reconstruct dietary and migration patterns of an Avar population from Sajópetri, Hungary, AD 568-895 (Unpublished Dissertation). University of South Florida.
• Paul the Deacon, H. G. (1975). History of the Lombards. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
• Pisidae, G., & Bekker, I. (1836). Georgii pisidae expeditio persica, bellum avaricum, heraclias, corpus scriptorum historiae byzantinae. Bonnae: Weber Publisher.
• Pohl, W. (2018). The Avars: A steppe empire in Europe, 567-822. New York: Cornell University Press.
• Postan, M. M. (1973). Mediaeval Trade and Finance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Premuzic, Z., & P. & Papesa, A. R. (2016). A case of Avar period trepanation from Croatia. Anthropological Review, 79(4), 471-482.
• Romhányi, B. F. (2018). Salt mining and trade in Hungary before the Mongol invasion. In J. Laszlovszky, B. Nagy, P. Szabó, & A. Vadas (Eds.), The Economy of Medieval Hungary (pp. 182-204). Leiden: Brill Publisher.
• Rona-Tas, A. (1999). Hungarians and Europe in the early middle ages, an ıntroduction to early Hungarian history. Budapest: Central European University Press.
• Salisbury, R. F. (1973). Economic anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology, 2, 85-94.
• Schloss Ambrass Inssbruck, Retrieved from: https://www.schlossambras-innsbruck.at/it/besuchen/ausstellun gen/archiv /2015/zu-gast-in-ambras-05 (27.08.2020).
• Schmauder, M. (2015). Huns, Avars, Hungarians - reflections on the interaction between steppe empires in Southeast Europe and the Late Roman to Early Byzantine Empires. In J. Bemmann & M. Schmauder (Eds.), Complexity of interaction along the Eurasian steppe zone in the first millennium CE (pp. 671-692). Bonn.
• Schmidt, L. (1985). Zur Geschichte der Langobarden. Leipsic: G. Fock Publisher.
• Scholz, B. W., & Rogers-Gardner, B. (1972). Carolingian chronicles: Royal Frankish annals and Nithard’s Histories. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
• Schwarcz, D. & Varga, Z. (2010). Metalwork in the early Avar period: granulation, filigree - imitation. Tyragetia, IV(XIX), 208-223.
• Smith, M. E. (2004). The archaeology of ancient state economies. Annual Review of Anthropology, 33(1), 73-102.
• Stadler, P. (2008). Avar chronology revisited, and the question of ethnicity in the Avar qaganate. In F. Curta & R. Kovalev (Eds.), The other Europe in the middle ages: Avars, Bulgars, Khazars, and Cumans (pp. 47-82). Leiden: Brill Publisher
• Szadeczky-Kardoss, S. (1990). The Avars. In D. Sinor (Ed.), The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia (p. 226). New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Szenthe, G. (2019). The ‘late Avar reform’ and the ‘long eighth century’: A tale of the hesitation between structural transformation and the persistent nomadic traditions (7th to 9th century AD). Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 70(1), 215-250.
• Szentpéteri, J. (Ed.). (2002). Archäologische denkmäler der awarenzeit in mitteleuropa: In memoriam Professoris Stephani Bóna (1930-2001), Varia Archaeologica Hungarica (13). Budapest: Archäologisches Institut der Ungarischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
• Theodorus, S., Makk, F. & Sternbach, L. (1975). Traduction et Commentaire de l'homélie écrite probablement par Théodore le Syncelle sur le siège de Constantinople en 626. Szeged.
• Török, B., Kovács, Á., Barkóczy, P., & Kristály, F. (2012). Complex archaeometrical examination of iron tools and slag from a Celtic settlement in the Carpathian basin. Proceedings of the 39th International Symposium for Archaeometry, Leuven, 125-134.
• Vida, T. (2008). Conflict and coexistence: The local population of the Carpathian Basin under Avar rule (sixth to seventh century). F. Curta (Ed.), The Other Europe in the Middle Ages Avars, Bulgars, Khazars and Cumans (pp. 13-46). Leiden: Brill Publisher.
• Vidal-Ronchas, R., Šikanjić, P. R., Premužić, Z., Papeša, A. R., & Lightfoot, E. (2019). Diet, sex, and social status in the Late Avar period: stable isotope investigations at Nuštar cemetery, Croatia. Archaeol Anthropol Sciences, 11(5), 1727-1737.
• Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. (1960). The fourth book of the chronicle of fredegar with its continuations. London: Nelson Publisher.
• Whitby, M., & Whitby, M. (1989). Chronicon paschale 284-628 A.D. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.
• Young, B. K. (1978). Funeral archaeology and Avar culture: old excavations yield serial data. Journal of Field Archaeology, 5(4), 471-477.