Yoksulluk Paradigmalarının Evrimi: Tarihsel ve Kavramsal Bir İnceleme

Öz

Yoksulluk yalnızca ekonomik bir fenomen değil, aynı zamanda sosyal, politik ve kültürel boyutları olan karmaşık bir yapıdır. Modernleşme süreciyle topraklarından uzak kalan insanlar maddi yoksulluğun yanında sosyal ve kültürel anlamda da yoksullaşmıştır. Yoksulluk geçmişte olduğu gibi günümüzde de önemini koruyan bir konsepttir. Yoksulluk bir çok alanın ortak araştırma konusu olduğundan süreç içerisinde sürekli olarak değişen ve gelişen bir kavramdır. Çalışmada geçmişten günümüze yoksulluğun tarihsel arka planı ele alınmış ve modern yoksulluk teorileri incelenmiştir. Yoksulluk kavramının salt bir parasızlık durumu olmadığı; yoksulluğun çok çeşitli sosyo ekonomik faktörleri barındırdığı belirtilmiştir. Yoksulluğun belirli bir gelir seviyesinin altında kalındığında oluşan bir durum olmadığı bireyin sosyal ve ekonomik çevrenin tamamen ya da kısmen dışında kalmasının, çalışmasına rağmen yeterli gelire ulaşamamasının, kendini gerçekleştirebilmesi adına fırsatlara sahip olamaması ya da bu fırsatları değerlendirebilecek ortama sahip olmamasının da yoksulluk kavramı çerçevesinde ele alınması gerektiği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Yoksulluk
• Kavramsal evrim
• Mutlak yoksulluk
• Göreli Yoksulluk
• İnsani Yoksulluk

Evolution of Poverty Paradigms: A Historical and Conceptual Examination

Öz

Poverty is not only an economic phenomenon but also a complex structure with social, political, and cultural dimensions. As people are disconnected from their lands during the process of modernization, they have become impoverished not only in material terms but also in social and cultural aspects. Poverty, which has maintained its significance in the past as well as in the present, is a concept that constantly changes and evolves as it is a common research subject in various fields. In this study, the historical background of poverty from the past to the present is examined, and modern poverty theories are investigated. It is emphasized that poverty is not merely a state of lack of money but encompasses various socio-economic factors. It is concluded that poverty should be understood as not only a situation that occurs when individuals fall below a certain income level, but also when individuals are partially or completely excluded from their social and economic environment, unable to attain sufficient income despite their work, lacking opportunities for self-realization, or lacking the necessary environment to seize those opportunities within the framework of the concept of poverty.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Poverty
• Conceptual evolution
• Absolute poverty
• relative poverty
• Human poverty

Kaynakça

1. Adena, M., Myck, M., & Oczkowska, M. (2015). Material Deprivation Items in SHARE Wave 5 Data: A Contribution to a Better Understanding of Differences in Material Conditions in Later Life. In A. Börsch-Supan, T. Kneip, H. Litwin, M. Myck, & G. Weber (Eds.), Ageing in Europe - Supporting Policies for an Inclusive Society (pp. 25–38). De Gruyter.
2. Alcock, P. (1997). Understanding Poverty. Palgrave.
3. Alkire, S. (2002). Valuing Freedoms: Sen’s Capability Approach and Poverty Reduction. Oxford University Press.
4. Atkinson, A. B. (1999). The Contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 101(2), 173–190. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3440691%0A
5. Atkinson, A. B., Cantillon, B., Marlier, E., & Nolan, B. (2002). Social Indicators: The EU and Social Inclusion. Oxford University Press.
6. Atkinson, A. B., & Marlier, E. (2010). Analysing and Measuring Social Inclusion in a Global Context. United Nations.
7. Auletta, K. (1982). The Underclass. Random House.
8. Banfield, E. C. (1968). The Unheavenly City: The Nature and Future of Our Urban Crisis. Little, Brown and Company.

9. Bauman, Z. (2005). Work, Consumerism and the New Poor. Open University Press.
10. Beaudoin, S. M. (2007). Poverty in World History. Routledge.
11. Ben-Ghedalia, Y. (2018). Empowerment: tzedakah , philanthropy and Inner-Jewish shtadlanut. Jewish Culture and History, 19(1), 71–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/1462169X.2017.1410276
12. Berkman, H. (2007). Social Exclusion and Violence in Latin America and the Caribbean.
13. Beyers, J. (2014). The effect of religion on poverty. HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies, 70(1). https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v70i1.2614
14. Bhalla, A. S., & Lapeyre, F. (1999). Poverty and Exclusion in a Global World. Macmillan.
15. BLS. (2020). BLS Report: A Profile of the Working Poor, 2018. https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/working-poor/2018/home.htm
16. Booth, C. (1889). Life and Labour of the People in London, Vol 1: Poverty; East, Central and South London. Macmillan and Co., Limited.
17. Brady, D. (2009). Rich Democracies, Poor People: How Politics Explain Poverty. Oxford University Press.
18. Buğra, A. (2010). Kapitalizm, Yoksulluk ve Türkiye’de Sosyal Politika. İletişim Yayınları.
19. Çağrıcı, M. (1999). İbn Meymûn. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi. https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ibn-meymun
20. Chen, S., & Ravallion, M. (2000). How did the World’s Poorest Fare in the 1990s? https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/19795
21. Chossudovsky, M. (2003). The Globalization of Poverty and the New World Order. Global Research.
22. Citro, C. F., & Michael, R. T. (Eds.). (1995). Measuring Poverty: A New Approach. National Academy Press.
23. Dasgupta, P. (1993). An Inquiry into Well-Being and Destitution. Clarendon Press.
24. de Haan, A. (1998). “Social Excluison” An Alternative Concept for the Study of Deprivation? IDS Bulletin, 29(1), 10–19.
25. Deakin, N., Davis, A., & Thomas, N. (1995). Public Welfare Services and Social Exclusion: The Development of Consumer-Oriented Initiatives in the European Union. Loughlinstown House.
26. Dean, H. (2009). Critiquing capabilities: The distractions of a beguiling concept. Critical Social Policy, 29(2), 261–278. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018308101629
27. Dennis, I. (2009). European Union Countries Practice on Relative Poverty Measurement. Statistics on Income, Poverty & Social Exclusion, Eurostay. http://www.ibge.gov.br/poverty/pdf/Relative Poverty Practices/RELATIVE POVERTY.pdf
28. Dervis, K., & Klugman, J. (2011). Measuring Human Progress: the Contribution of the Human Development Index and Related Indices. Revue d’économie Politique, 121(1), 73–92. https://doi.org/10.3917/redp.211.0073
29. Dols, M. W. (1979). The Second Plague Pandemic and Its Recurrences in the Middle East: 1347-1894. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 22(2), 162–189. https://doi.org/10.2307/3631953
30. Dreze, J., & Sen, A. (1989). Hunger and Public Action. Clarendon Press.
31. Duclos, J.-Y., & Araar, A. (2006). Poverty and Equity: Measurement, Policy, and Estimation with DAD. Springer.
32. European Commission. (2010). 2010, the European Year for Combating Poverty and Social Exclusion. https://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/2010againstpoverty/extranet/About_the_Year/factsheet_EY2010_en.pdf
33. European Communities. (1992). Treaty on European Union. https://europa.eu/european-union/sites/europaeu/files/docs/body/treaty_on_european_union_en.pdf
34. European Council. (1975). Council Decision of 22 July 1975 Concerning a Programme of Pilot Schemes and Studies to Combat Poverty. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dec/1975/458/oj
35. European Council. (1985). Council Decision of 19 December 1984 on Specific Community Action to Combat Poverty. Official Journal of the European Communities, 2(2), 24–25. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:L:1985:002:FULL&from=EN
36. European Council. (1989a). Community Charter of the Fundamental Social Rights of Workers. https://www.eesc.europa.eu/resources/docs/community-charter--en.pdf
37. European Council. (1989b). Resolution of the Council and of the Ministers for Social Affairs Meeting within the Council of 29 September 1989 on Combating Social Exclusion. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:41989X1031:EN:HTML
38. European Parliament. (2000). Lisbon European Council 23 and 23 March 2000: Presidency Conclusions. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/lis1_en.htm
39. Eurostat. (2021). Children at Risk of the Poverty or Social Exclusion. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Children_at_risk_of_poverty_or_social_exclusion#Children_growing_up_in_poverty_and_social_exclusion
40. Gans, H. J. (1995). The War Against the Poor: The Underclass and Antipoverty Policy. Basic Books.
41. Geremek, B. (1994). Poverty A History (A. Kolakowska (Trans.)). Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
42. Glennerster, H. (2002). United States Poverty Studies and Poverty Measurement: The Past Twenty‐Five Years. Social Service Review, 76(1), 83–107. https://doi.org/10.1086/324609
43. Gore, C. (1995). Introduction: Markets, Citizenship and Social Exclusion. In G. Rodgers, C. Gore, & J. B. Figueiredo (Eds.), Social Exclusion: Rhetoric, Reality, Responses (pp. 1–40). International Labour Organization.
44. Hagenaars, A. J. M., & van Praag, B. (1985). A Synthesis of Poverty Line Definitions. Review of Income and Wealth, 31(2), 139–154. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1985.tb00504.x
45. Harrington, M. (1962). The Other America: Poverty in the United States. Macmillan.
46. Himmelfarb, G. (1984). The Idea of Poverty: England in the Early Industrial Age. Faber & Faber.
47. Hunter, R. (1904). Poverty: Social Conscience in the Progressive Era. Harper & Row.
48. Iceland, J., & Kim, J. (2001). Poverty among Working Families: New Insights from an Improved Poverty Measure. Social Science Quarterly, 82(2), 253–267. https://doi.org/10.1111/0038-4941.00021
49. ILO. (1977). Meeting Basic Needs: Strategies for Eradicating Mass Poverty and Unemployment. ILO.
50. Immervoll, H., Levy, H., Lietz, C., Mantovani, D., & Sutherland, H. (2006). The sensitivity of poverty rates to macro-level changes in the European Union. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 30(2), 181–199. https://doi.org/10.1093/cje/bei054
51. Katz, M. B. (1995). Improving Poor People: The Welfare State, the “Underclass”, and Urban Schools as History. Princeton University Press.
52. Kuzudisli, A. (2017). Fight Against Poverty From the Islamic Point of View: The Wealth Distribution and Share. Economics World, 5(1), 9–15. https://doi.org/10.17265/2328-7144/2017.01.002
53. Larsen, T. P., & Taylor-Gooby, P. (2004). New Risks at the EU Level; A Spillover from Open Market Policies? In P. Taylor-Gooby (Ed.), New Risks, New Welfare: The Transformation of the European Welfare State (pp. 181–208). Oxford University Press.
54. Leaman, O. (1990). Moses Maimonides (Arabic Thought and Culture Series). Routledge.
55. Lewis, O. (1951). Life in Mexican Village: Tepoztlan Restudied. University of Illinois Press.
56. Lewis, O. (1958). Village Life in Northern India. University of Illinois Press.
57. Lewis, O. (1959). Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty. Basic Books.
58. Lewis, O. (1966). La Vida: A Puerto Rican Family in the Culture of Poverty. Random House.
59. Lipton, M. (1983). Poverty, Undernutrition, and Hunger. http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/892041468766760990/pdf/multi0page.pdf
60. Ludi, E., & Bird, K. (2007). Brief No: 1- Understanding Poverty. https://www.shareweb.ch/site/Poverty-Wellbeing/resources/Documents/Briefing Note 1 - Understanding Poverty.pdf
61. Marsland, D. (1991). Beyond the Welfare State. http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/polin/polin065.pdf
62. Mc Lanahan, S. S., Sørensen, A., & Watson, D. (1989). Sex Differences in Poverty, 1950-1980. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 15(1), 102–122. https://doi.org/10.1086/494566
63. McNamara, R. (1981). To the Board of Governors, Nairobi, Kenya, September 24, 1973. In The McNamara Years at the World Bank (pp. 231–264). The Johns Hopkins University Press. http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/850631468336712540/pdf/332440PUB0McNa101Official0Use0Only1.pdf
64. Mehretu, A., Pigozzi, B. W., & Sommers, L. M. (2000). Concepts in Social and Spatial Marginality. Geografiska Annaler, 82 B(2), 89–101.
65. More, T. (2016). Utopia (S. Eyüboğlu, V. Günyol, & M. Urgan (Eds.)). Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları.
66. Moynihan. (1965). The Negro Family: The Case for National Action. Office of Policy Planning and Research United States Department of Labor.
67. Murray, C. (1984). Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980. Basic Books.
68. Murray, C. (1999). The Underclass Revisited. The AEI Press.
69. Myrdal, G. (1963). Challenge to Affluence. Victor Gollancz Ltd.
70. OECD. (2008). Growing Unequal?: Income Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries. OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264044197-en
71. Peña-Casas, R., & Latta, M. (2004). Working Poor in the European Union. http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/e5307f43-c7d4-4c36-8262-81b72796c8ae.0001.02/DOC_2
72. Polanyi, K. (2010). Büyük Dönüşüm: Çağımızın Siyasal ve Ekonomik Kökenleri (A. Buğra (Trans.)). İletişim Yayınları.
73. Premasiri, P. D. (1999). Religious Values and the Measurement of Poverty: A Buddhist Perspective (World Faiths Development Dialogue). http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPOVERTY/Resources/WDR/johannesburg/buddhist.pdf
74. Rao, V. K. R. V. (1982). Food, Nutrition & Poverty in India. Harvester Press.
75. Ravallion, M. (1998). Poverty Lines in Theory and Practice. http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/916871468766156239/pdf/multi-page.pdf
76. Ravallion, M., Chen, S., & Sangraula, P. (2009). Dollar a Day Revisited. The World Bank Economic Review, 23(2), 163–184. https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhp007
77. Ravallion, M., Datt, G., & Walle, D. (1991). Quantifying Absolute Poverty in the Developing World. Review of Income and Wealth, 37(4), 345–361. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1991.tb00378.x
78. Rhee, H. (2017). Wealth and Poverty in Early Christianity. Fortress Press.
79. Roberts, B. R. (2004). From Marginality to Social Exclusion: From Laissez Faire to Pervasive Engagement. Latin American Research Review, 39(1), 195–197. https://doi.org/10.1353/lar.2004.0017
80. Roemer, J. E. (1996). Theories of Distributive Justice. Harvard University Press.
81. Ropers, R. H. (1991). Persistent Poverty: The American Dream Turned Nightmare. Plenum Press.
82. Rowntree, S. B. (1901). Poverty: A Study of Town Life. Macmillan and Co., Limited.
83. Sadeq, A. M. (1997). Poverty Alleviation: An Islamic Perspective. Humanomics, 13(3), 110–134. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb018797
84. Saith, R. (2001). Social Exclusion: the Concept and Application to Developing Countries. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.194.8572&rep=rep1&type=pdf
85. Schall, J. V. (1990). Religion, Wealth and Poverty. Fraser Institute.
86. Schor, J. B. (1998). The Overspent American: Upscalling, Downshifting, and the New Consumer. Basic Books.
87. Sen, A. (1977). Rational Fools: A Critique of the Behavioral Foundations of Economic Theory. Philosphy & Public Affairs, 6(4), 317–344. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2264946
88. Sen, A. (1980). Equality of What? In S. M. McMurrin (Ed.), The Tanner Lecture on Human Values I (pp. 197–220). Cambridge University Press.
89. Sen, A. (1981). Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. Clarendon Press.
90. Sen, A. (1983a). Development: Which Way Now? The Economic Journal, 93(372), 745–762. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2307/2232744
91. Sen, A. (1983b). Poor, Relatively Speaking. Oxford Economic Papers, 35(2), 153–169. https://are.berkeley.edu/courses/ARE251/fall2008/Papers/sen83.pdf
92. Sen, A. (1987). The Standard of Living. Cambridge University Press.
93. Sen, A. (1988). The concept of development. In H. Chenery & T. N. Srinivasan (Eds.), Handbook of Development Economics, Vol 1 (pp. 9–26). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1573-4471(88)01004-6
94. Sen, A. (1989). Development as Capability Expansion. Journal of Development Planning, 19, 41–58.
95. Sen, A. (1992). Inequality Reexamined. Russell Sage Foundation.
96. Sen, A. (1993). Capability and Well-Being. In M. Nussbaum & A. Sen (Eds.), The Quality of Life (pp. 31–53). Clarendon Press.
97. Sen, A. (1999). Commodities and Capabilities. Oxford University Press.
98. Sen, A. (2000). Development as Freedom. Alfred A. Knopf.
99. Şenses, F. (2006). Küreselleşmenin Öteki Yüzü Yoksulluk. İletişim Yayınları.
100. Sharma, A. (2010). Hinduism and Poverty. In W. A. Galston & P. H. Hoffenberg (Eds.), Poverty and Morality (pp. 160–179). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511779084.009
101. Smith, A. (2014). Milletlerin Zenginliği (H. Derin (Trans.)). Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları.
102. Spicker, P. (1993). Poverty and Social Security: Concepts and Principles. Routledge.
103. Srinivasan, T. N. (1994). Human Development: A New Paradigm or Reinvention of the Wheel? The American Economic Review, 84(2), 238–243. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2117836
104. Sugden, R. (1993). Review: Welfare, Resources, and Capability: A Review of Inequality Reexamined by Amartya Sen. Journal of Economic Literature, 31(4), 1947–1962. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2728332
105. Suter, C., Beycan, T., & Ravazzini, L. (2017). Sociological Perspectives on Poverty. In K. O. Korgen (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Sociology (pp. 397–406). Cambridge University Press.
106. Taylor, M. C., & Saarinen, E. (1994). Imagologies: Media Philosophy. Routledge.
107. Thompson, E. P. (2015). İngiliz İşçi Sınıfının Oluşumu (U. Kocabaşoğlu (Trans.)). Birikim Kitapları.
108. Thorbecke, E. (2007). The Evolution of the Development Doctrine, 1950-2005. In G. Mavrotas & A. Shorrocks (Eds.), Advancing Development. Studies in Development Economics and Policy (pp. 3–36). Palgrave Macmillan.
109. Time. (1977). The American Underclass. Time, August 29, 14–27. https://time.com/vault/issue/1977-08-29/page/18/
110. Townsend, P. (1954). Measuring Poverty. The British Journal of Sociology, 5(2), 130–137. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2307/587651
111. Townsend, P. (1962). The Meaning of Poverty. The British Journal of Sociology, 13(3), 210–227. https://doi.org/10.2307/587266
112. Townsend, P. (1979). Poverty in the United Kingdom: A Survey of Household Resources and Standars of Living. Allen Lane.
113. Townsend, P. (1987). Deprivation. Journal of Social Policy, 16(2), 125–146. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279400020341
114. UNDP. (1990). Human Development Report 1990. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/219/hdr_1990_en_complete_nostats.pdf
115. UNDP. (1997). Human Development Report 1997. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/258/hdr_1997_en_complete_nostats.pdf
116. UNDP. (2000). Human Development Report 2000. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/261/hdr_2000_en.pdf
117. Wilson, W. J. (1987). The Truly Disadvantaged. The University of Chicago Press.
118. Wilson, W. J. (1996). When Work Disappears: The World of New Urban Poor. Knopf.
119. World Bank. (1979). World Development Report, 1979. Oxford University Press, for World Bank.
120. World Bank. (1990). World Development Report 1990: Poverty. Oxford University Press, for World Bank.
121. World Bank. (2001). World Development Report 2000/2001: Attacking Poverty. Oxford University Press, for World Bank.
122. World Bank. (2010). World Development Report: Development and Climate Change. The World Bank.
123. World Bank. (2014). Introduction to Poverty Analysis. http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/775871468331250546/pdf/902880WP0Box380okPovertyAnalysisEng.pdf
124. Zohar, N. (2010). Jewish Perspectives on Poverty. In W. Galston & P. Hoffenberg (Eds.), Poverty and Morality: Religious and Secular Perspectives (pp. 204–219). Cambridge University Press.