Resilience, Positive Childhood Experiences and Perceived Happiness Among Adults

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationships between individuals' positive childhood experiences, perceptions of happiness and psychological resilience levels. 968 people (646 Women / 322 Men) participated in the study. In the study, Positive Childhood Experiences Scale, Connor-Davidson Psychological Resilience Scale, Short Psychological Resilience Scale and Demographic Information Form were used as data collection tools. As a result of the analysis performed, it was concluded that positive childhood experiences predicted psychological resilience positively and that result statistically significantly. The findings also revealed that psychological resilience and positive childhood experiences differed significantly by gender. In addition, it was concluded that there were significant differences in psychological resilience scores according to the participants' perceptions of happiness. The results obtained are enlightening in understanding the importance of positive experiences in childhood and adult mental health.

Keywords

• resilience
• happiness
• positive psychology

Yetişkinlerde Psikolojik Sağlamlık, Olumlu Çocukluk Deneyimleri ve Algılanan Mutluluk

Öz

Bu çalışmanın amacı, bireylerin olumlu çocukluk yaşantıları, mutluluk algıları ve psikolojik sağlamlık düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkilerin incelenmesidir. Çalışmaya 968 (646 kadın / 322 erkek) kişi katılmıştır. Araştırmada veri toplama araçları olarak Olumlu Çocukluk Yaşantıları Ölçeği, Connor-Davidson Psikolojik Sağlamlık Ölçeği, Kısa Psikolojik Sağlamlık Ölçeği ve demografik bilgi formu kullanılmıştır. Analizler sonucu olumlu çocukluk yaşantılarının psikolojik sağlamlığı pozitif yönde ve anlamlı düzeyde yordadığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Bulgular psikolojik sağlamlık ve olumlu çocukluk yaşantılarının cinsiyete göre anlamlı düzeyde farklılık gösterdiğini ortaya koymuştur. Ayrıca katılımcıların mutluluk algılarına göre psikolojik sağlamlık puanlarında da anlamlı düzeyde farklılıklar olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçlar, çocukluk dönemindeki olumlu yaşantıların önemini ve yetişkin ruh sağlığını anlamada aydınlatıcı olacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Psikolojik Sağlamlık
• Kendini toparlama gücü
• Olumlu çocukluk yaşantıları
• mutluluk
• pozitif psikoloji

Kaynakça

1. Adler A (1998) Yaşama Sanatı. İstanbul, Say Yayınları.
2. Adler A (2000) Yaşamın Anlam ve Amacı. İstanbul, Say Yayınları.
3. Agabi CE, Wilson JP (2005) Trauma, PTSD and Resilience. Trauma, Violence and Abuse, 6(3):195-216.
4. Ainsworth MDS (1989) Attachments Beyond İnfancy. American Psychologist, 44(4),709-716.
5. Akar A (2018) Psikolojik Sağlamlık Programının Ergenlerin Psikolojik Sağlamlık Düzeyine Etkisi (Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi). İstanbul, Maltepe Üniversitesi.
6. Arslan H (2018) Psikolojik Danışmanların Mutluluk, Psikolojik Sağlamlık ve Bağımlılık Durumları Arasındaki İlişkiler. Sağlık Bilimlerinde Eğitim Dergisi, 1(1):17-35.
7. Bartone PT, Valdes JJ, Jocoy K, Spinosa A, Bowles SV (2013) Psychological hardiness predicts cardiovascular risk in healthy adults. Association for Psychological Science 25th Annual Convention, Washington.
8. Baum NL (2008) Building resilience. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 10(1-2), 487-498.

9. Beck JS (2001) Bilişsel Terapi Temel İlkeler ve Ötesi. İstanbul, Litera Yayınları
10. Bellis MA, Hughes K, Ford K, Hardcastle KA, Sharp CA, Wood S, et al. (2018) Adverse childhood experiences and sources of childhood resilience: a retrospective study of their combined relationships with child health and educational attendance. BMC Public Health, 18(1).
11. Benard B (2004) Resiliency: What We Have Learned. San Francisco, West Ed Publishers.
12. Bethell C, Jones J, Gombojav N, Linkenbach J, Sege, R (2019) Positive Childhood Experiences and Adult Mental and Relational Health in a Statewide Sample. JAMA Pediatrics, e193007. 
13. Bonanno GA (2004) Loss, trauma and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59:20–28.
14. Bonanno GA, Mancini A (2008) The Human Capacity to Thrive in the Face of Potential Trauma. Pediatrics. 121(2):369–375.
15. Bowlby J (2013) Bağlanma. İstanbul, Pinhan Yayıncılık.
16. Buckner JC, Mezzacappa E, Beardslee WR (2003) Characteristics of the resilient youths living in poverty: The role of self-regulatory processes. Development and Psychopathology, 15:139-162.
17. Burns RA, Anstey KJ, Windsor TD (2011) Subjective Well-Being Mediates the Effects of Resilience and Mastery on Depression and Anxiety in a Large Community Sample of Young and Middle-Aged Adults. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 45:240-248.
18. Callahan CD (2000) Stress, coping and personality hardiness in patients with temporomandibular disorders. Rehabilitation Psychology, 45(1):38-48.
19. Can M, Cantez KE (2018) Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Mutluluk, Psikolojik Sağlamlık ve Öz Yeterlik Düzeyleri Arasındaki İlişki. Aydın Toplum ve İnsan Dergisi, 4(2):61-76.
20. Chen J, George RA (2005) Cultivating resilience in children from divorced families. The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families, 13(4):452-455.
21. Cheung C, Yue XD (2012) Sojourn students’ humor styles as buffers to achieve resilience. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36(3):353–364. 
22. Cicchetti D, Rogosch FA (2007) Personality, adrenal steroid hormones, and resilience in maltreated children: a multilevel perspective. Developmental Psychopathology, 19, 787–809. Cohn MA, Fredrickson BL, Brown SL, Mikels JA, Conway AM (2009) Happiness unpacked: Positive emotions increase life satisfaction by building resilience. Emotion, 9(3):361–368.
23. Connor KM, Davidson JR (2003) Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor Davidson Resilience Scale(CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18:76–82.
24. Cowen EL, Work WC, Wyman EA, Parker GR, Wannon M, Gribble E (1992) Test comparisons among stress-efffected, stress-resilient, and nonclassified fourth-through sixth-grade urban children. Journal of Community Psychology, 20:200- 214.
25. Crocker J, Park LE (2004) The costly pursuit of self-esteem. Psychological Bulletin, 130: 392-414.
26. Çakar FS (2018) The Role of Resilience and Gender in the Relationship between Adults’ Childhood Traumatic Experiences and Psychological Symptoms. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 44:114-131.
27. Çakar FS, Karataş Z, Çakır MA (2014) Yetişkinler için Yılmazlık Ölçeği’nin Uyarlanması ve Psikometrik Özellikleri. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 1(32):22-39.
28. Çetinkaya B (2010) Sağlıklı Bir Evlilik Sağlıklı Bir Aile. Ruhsal Açıdan Sağlıklı Aile Sağlıklı Çocuk . Ankara, Empati Yayıncılık.
29. DeLongis A, Coyne JC, Dakof G, Folkman S, Lazarus RS (1982) Relationship of daily hassles, uplifts, and major life events to health status. Health Psychology, 1:119–136.
30. Diener E (1984) ‘Subjective Well-Being’. Psychological Bulletin, 95:542–575.
31. Diener E, Seligman MEP (2002) Very happy people. Psychological Science, 13:81–84.
32. Doğan T (2015) Kısa Psikolojik Sağlamlık Ölçeği’nin Türkçe uyarlaması: geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 3(1):93- 102.
33. Doğan T, Aydın FT (2019) The Development of Positive Childhood Experiences Scale. Paper presented at the 2. Positive Psychology in Practice Conference. 24th-25th October 2019, Utrecht, Netherlands.
34. Doğan T, Eryılmaz A (2014) The Role of Social Intelligence in Happiness. Croatian Journal of Education, 16(3):863-878.
35. Drapeaua S, Saint-Jacques M, Le ́pinea R, Be ́gin G, Bernard G (2007) Processes that contribute to resilience among youth in foster care. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 977-999.
36. Durlak JA (1998) Common risk and protective factors in successful prevention programs. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 68(4):512-520. 
37. Freire C, Ferradás MM, Valle A, Núñez JC, Vallejo G (2016) Profiles of Psychological Well-being and Coping Strategies among University Students. Front. Psychol. 7:1554.
38. Friborg O, Barlaug D, Martinussen M, Rosenvinge JH, Hjemdal O (2005) Resilience in relation to personality and intelligence. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 14(1):29–42. 
39. Gentry WD, Kobasa SC (1984) Social and psychological resources mediating stress-illness relationships in humans. Handbook of behavioral medicine: In W. D. Gentry (Eds.):87-116. New York, Guilford Press.
40. Gito M, Ihara H, Ogata H (2013) The relationship of resilience, hardiness, depression and burnout among Japanese psychiatric hospital nurses. Journal of Nursing Education and Practice, 3(11), 12-18.
41. Gizir CA (2007) Psikolojik sağlamlık, risk faktörleri ve koruyucu faktörler üzerine bir derleme çalışması. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, 28:113-128.
42. Greeff AP, Ritman IN (2005) Individual characteristics associated with resilience in single-parent families. Psychological Reports, 96(1):36-42.
43. Greene R (2002) Human behavior theory: A resilience orientation. Resiliency: An integrated approach to practice, policy, and research, (Ed R Greene). Washington, DC, NASW Press.
44. Greene R, Conrad AP (2002) Basic assumptions and terms. Resiliency: An integrated approach to practice, policy and research, (Ed R Greene). Washington, DC, NASW Press.
45. Goldstein S, Brooks RB (2013) Why Study Resilience? Handbook of Resilience in Children, 3-6. New York, Springer.
46. Goudie RJ, Mukherjee S, De Neve JE, Oswald AJ, Wu S (2014) Happiness as a driver of risk-avoiding behaviour: Theory and an empirical study of seatbelt wearing and automobile accidents. Economica, 81:674–697.
47. Gökmen D (2009) Kadın sığınma evinde yaşayan şiddet görmüş kadınlar ile eşiyle birlikte yaşayan şiddet görmüş kadınlar arasındaki psikolojik dayanıklılık ve bağlanma durumlarının karşılaştırılması (Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi). İstanbul, Maltepe Üniversitesi.
48. Gustems-Carnicer J, Calderón C (2013) Coping strategies and psychological well-being among teacher education students. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28:1127–1140.
49. Headey B, Veenhoven R, Wearing A (1991) Top-down versus bottom-up theories of subjective well-being. Social Indicators Research, 24:81–100.
50. Hunter AJ, Chandler GE (1999) Adolescent resilience. Image Journal of Nursing Scholarship (Third Quarter), 31:243-247.
51. Işık Ş (2016) Türkiye’de Kendini Toparlama Gücü Konusunda Yapılmış Araştırmaların İncelenmesi, 6(45): 65-76.
52. Jaffee SR, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Polo-Tomas M, Taylor A (2007) Individual, family, and neighborhood factors distinguish resilient from non-resilient maltreated children: A cumulative stressors model. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31:231–253.
53. Karaırmak Ö (2006) Psikolojik sağlamlık, risk faktörleri ve koruyucu faktörler. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, 3(26):129-142.
54. Karaırmak Ö (2007) Connor-Davidson Psikolojik Sağlamlık Ölçeği’nin Türkçe versiyonunun geçerlik ve güvenirliği: Travma örnekleminde doğrulayıcı faktör analizi. IX. Ulusal Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Kongresi, 3-5 Ekim 2011 İzmir, Türkiye. Kongre Özet Kitabı.
55. Karaırmak Ö (2007) Investigation of personal qualities contributing to psychological resilience among earthquake survivors: A model testing study (Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi). Ankara, Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi.
56. Karaırmak Ö, Siviş ÇR (2011) Benlik Saygısının ve Kontrol Odağının Psikolojik Sağlamlık Üzerine Etkisi: Bir Model Test Etme Çalışması. 18. National Education Sciences Council, 1-3.
57. Kavi E, Karakale B (2018) Çalışan Psikolojisi Açısından Psikolojik Dayanıklılık. Hak-İş Uluslararası Emek ve Toplum Dergisi, 7:17.
58. KC A, Gan CCR, Dwirahmadi F (2019) Breaking Through Barriers and Building Disaster Mental Resilience: A Case Study in the Aftermath of the 2015 Nepal Earthquakes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(16):2964. 
59. Kirby LD, Fraser MW (1997) Risk and resilience in childhood. (Ed M Fraser). Washington, DC, NASW Press.
60. Kobasa SC (1979) Personality and Resistance to Illness. American Journal of Community Psychology. 7:4.
61. Kobasa SC, Maddi SR, Kahn S (1982) Hardiness and health: A prospective study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42:168-177.
62. Kuiper NA, Martin RA, Olinger LJ (1993) Coping humour, stress, and cognitive appraisals. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 25(1):81-89.
63. Kumar SK, Bharti DA (2018) Role of Proactive Coping in Psychological wellbeing of Healthy Indian Youth. Journal of Indian Health Psychology, 12(2).
64. Kumpfer KL, Alvarado R (2003) Family strengthening approaches for the prevention of youth problem behaviors. American Psychologist, 58(6-7):457- 465.
65. Lee TY, Cheung CK, Kwong W (2012) Resilience as a positive youth development construct: A conceptual review. The ScientificWorld Journal, 2012:1-9.
66. Lower KE (2014) Understanding Resilience And Happiness Among College Students. (Master Thesis). Murfreesboro, Middle Tennessee State University.
67. Lu L, Shih JB (1997) Sources of Happiness: A Qualitative Approach. The Journal of Social Psychology, 137(2):181-187.
68. Luthar SS (2006) Resilience in Development: A Synthesis of research across five decades. Developmental psychopathology: risk, disorder, and adaptation (Eds D Cicchetti, DJ Cohen):739-795. New York, Wiley.
69. Luthar SS, Zelazo LB (2003) Research on resilience: An integrative review. S. S.
70. Luthar S, Zigler E (1991) Vulnerability and competence: A review of research on resilience in childhood. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61(1):6-22.
71. Lyubomirsky S, King L, Diener E (2005) The Benefits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success?. Psychological Bulletin, 131(6):803–855.
72. Maddi SR, Khoshaba DM, Persico JL, Harvey R, Bleecker F (2002) The personality construct of hardiness. Journal of Research in Personality, 36:72-85.
73. Malkoç A, Yalçın İ (2015) Relationships among Resilience, Social Support, Coping, and Psychological Well-Being among University Students. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 5(43):35-43.
74. Mandleco BL, Peery JC (2000) An organizational framework for conceptualizing resilience in children. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 13(3):99-111.
75. Marriner P, Cacioli JP, Moore KA (2014) The Relationship of Attachment to Resilience and their Impact on Stress. Stress and Anxiety: Applications to Social and Environmental Threats, Psychological Well-Being, Occupational Challenges, and Developmental Psychology. In Kaniasty. (Eds KA Moore, S Howard, P Buchwald):73-82. Berlin, Logos Publishers.
76. Martinek TJ, Hellison DR (1997) Fostering resiliency in underserved youth through physical activity. Quest, 49:34-49.
77. Masten AS (2001) Ordinary magic: Resilience process in development. American Psychologist, 56:227-238.
78. Masten AS (2014) Ordinary magic-resilience in development. New York, The Guilford Press.
79. Masten AS, Coastworth JD (1998) The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. American Psychologist, 53(2):205-220.
80. Masten AS, Powell JL (2003) A resilience framework for research, policy, and practice. In S, (Ed S Luthar):1-25 Resilience and vulnerabilities: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. New York, Cambridge University Press.
81. Masten AS, Reed MG (2002) Resilience in development. (Eds CR Snyder, SJ Lopez):74-78. The handbook of positive psychology. New York, NY, Oxford University Press.
82. McCubbin M, Balling K, Possin P, Frierdich S, Bryne B (2002) Family resiliency in childhood cancer. Family Relations, 51:103-111.
83. Myers DG (2000) The funds, friends, and faith of happy people. American Psychologist, 55:56–67.
84. Nakashima M, Canda ER (2005) Positive dying and resiliency in later life: A qualitative study. Journal of Aging Studies, 19(1):109-125.
85. Newman R (2005) APA’s resilience initiative. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36(3):227–229. 
86. Olsson CA, Bond L, Burns JM, Vella-Brodrick DA, Sawyer SM (2003) Adolescent resilience: A concept analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 26(1):1-11.
87. Oktan V (2012) Psikolojik sağlamlığın gelişiminde bir moderator olarak umut. International Journal of Human Sciences [Online]. (9)2, 1691-1701.
88. Ong AD, Zautra AJ, Reid MC (2010) Psychological resilience predicts decreases in pain catastrophizing through positive emotions. Psychology and Aging, 25(3):516–523. 
89. Öğülmüş S (2001) Bir kişilik özelliği olarak yılmazlık. 1. Ulusal çocuk ve suç sempozyumu: Nedenler ve önleme çalışmaları, 29-30 Mart 2001 Ankara.
90. Özyürek M (2000) Bireysel Farklılığa Psikoloji Yaklaşımlarıyla Bakış, genişletilmiş baskı. Ankara. Karatepe Yayınları.

91. Pilowsky DJ, Zybert PA, Vlahov D (2004) Resilient children of injection drug users. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(11):1372-1379.
92. Radke-Yarrow M, Brown E (1993) Resilience and vulnerability in children of multiple-risk families. Development and Psychopathology, 5:581–592.
93. Rasmussen PD, Storebø OJ, Løkkeholt T, Voss LG, Shmueli-Goetz Y, Bojesen AB et al. (2018) Attachment as a Core Feature of Resilience: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Psychological Reports, 122(4):1259-1296 Rees C (2007) Childhood Attachment. BrJ Gen Pract. 57(544):920-922 Ryff C, Reyes CLM (1995) The Structure of Psychological Well-Being Revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4):719-727.
94. Saki H (2020) Montessori Felsefesi ile Eğitim Alan 24-72 Ay Arası Çocukların Psikolojik Dayanıklılıklarının İncelenmesi. İstanbul Kent Üniversitesi İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Dergisi, 1(1):33-15.
95. Schneider TR, Lyons JB, Khazon S (2013) Emotional intelligence and resilience. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(8):909–914. 
96. Schoon I, Parsons S, Sacker A (2004) Socioeconomic adversity, educational resilience, and subsequent levels of adult adaptation. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19(4):383-404.
97. Seligman MEP (2002) Authentic happiness: Using the new Positive Psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. London, Nicholas Brealey.
98. Shapiro F (2016) EMDR Temel Prensipler, Protokoller ve Prosedürler (Çeviri Ed M Şaşzade, I Sansoy). İstanbul, Okuyanus Yayınları.
99. Smedema SM, Catalano D, Ebener DJ (2010) The relationship of coping, self-worth, and subjective well-being: A structural equation model. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 53(3):131-142.
100. Smith BW, Dalen J, Wiggins K, Tooley E, Christopher P, Jennifer Bernard J (2008) The brief resilience scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15:194–200.
101. Smith BW, Tooley EM, Christopher P, Kay VS (2010) Resilience as the ability to bounce back: A neglected personal resource? Journal of Positive Psychology, 5:166-176.
102. Steptoe A (2019) Happiness and Health. Annu. Rev. Public Health 40:4.1–4.21.
103. Şar V (2018) Çocukluk ve Travma: Psikotarihsel Bir Bakış. Çocuk ve Ergenlerde Travma ve Travmatik Durumların Etkileri ve Çözümleyici Yaklaşımlar, (Ed B Alyanak): 12-7 Ankara, Türkiye Klinikleri.
104. Tabachnick BG, Fidell LS (2013) Using multivariate statistics. Boston, Pearson.
105. Taylor GG, Minich N, Schluchter M, Espy KA, Klein N (2019) Resilience in Extremely Preterm/Extremely Low Birth Weight Kindergarten Children. J Int Neuropsychol Soc, 25(4):362–374.
106. Tebes JK, Kaufmani JS, Adnopoz J, Racusin G (2001) Resilience and Family Psychosocial Processes Among Children of Parents with Serious Mental Disorders. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 10:115–136.
107. Terzi Ş (2006) Kendini Toparlama Ölçeğinin uyarlanması: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışmaları. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, 3(26):77-86.
108. Topitzes J, Mersky JP, Dezen KA, Reynolds AJ (2014) Adult Resilience among Maltreated Children: A Prospective Investigation of Main Effect and Mediating Models. Child Youth Service Rev, 35(6):937-949.
109. Wallerstein JS, Lewis J (1998) The long-term impact of divorce on children: A first report from a 25-year study. Family and Conciliation Courts Review, 36:368–385.

110. Watson D, Clark LA, McIntyre CW, Hamaker S (1992) Affect, personality, and social activity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63:1011–1025.
111. Werner EE, Smith RS (1982) Vulnerable but invincible: A longitudinal study of resilient children and youth. New York, McGraw-Hill.
112. Windle G (2011) What is resilience? A review and concept analysis. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 21(02):152-169.
113. Wright TA, Cropanzano R (2000) Psychological well-being and job satisfaction as predictors of job performance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5:84–94.
114. Yıldırım PK, Yıldırım E, Otrar M, Şirin A (2015) Ergenlerde psikolojik dayanıklılık ile benlik kurgusu arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi. Marmara Üniversitesi Atatürk Eğitim Fakültesi Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi / Journal of Educational Sciences, 42:227-297.
115. Young J, Klosko JS, Weishaar ME (2017) Şema Terapi. İstanbul, Litera Yayıncılık.