Kültürel bir kıyamet: E. M. Forster'ın A Passage to India adlı eserinde emperyalizmin kıyametsel etkileri

Yıl 2022, Sayı: 31, 1290 - 1310, 21.12.2022

Kaya Özçelik

https://doi.org/10.29000/rumelide.1216887

Öz

İlk olarak dünyanın sonunu belirtmek için dini bir terim olarak ortaya çıkan kıyamet fikri, yeni bir başlangıç için mevcut durumun tamamen yok edilmesiyle sona eren her türlü felaket olay(lar) ve vaka(lar) ile ilişkili çeşitli çağrışımlara dönüşmüştür. İklim krizi ve bilim ve teknolojideki ilerlemelerin neden olduğu yıkım(lar) ile daha çok bağlantılı olmasına rağmen, bir kültürün Doğu ve Batı olmak üzere iki karşıt kültür arasındaki kültürel çatışma(lar) yoluyla yok edilmesi ve bunlardan çıkan sonuçların zayıf/Doğu tarafın temsilcilerini insanlıktan çıkarması, kültür bağlamında daha geniş anlamda kıyamet analizine de dahil edilebilir. Bu ilgi odağıyla, E. M. Forster'ın başyapıtı Hindistan'a Geçiş (1924), araştırma boyunca kültürel kıyamete örnek olarak değerlendirildi, ki bunun sonucunda Hintliler’in - ülkeleri Hindistan’ın bile - tam bir kıyamete sürüklenir ve ve Hintliler boyun eğen ve bir domuzdan başka hiçbir şey olarak görülmemektedir. Bir sivil istasyon tarfından kontrol edilen ve İngilizlerin zevk almakta özgür olduğu lüks ve konfordan izole edilen Hintliler, kendi topraklarında İngilizlerden herhangi bir özgürlük ve saygıdan yoksun karakterler olarak olarak çizilmektedir. Böylece, Hindistan’daki kapitalizmle de iç içe olan emperyalizm ideolojisinin arkasındaki ekonomik ve politik nedenler, yerli Hintliler’in yaşamlarında kültürel bir kıyamet olarak ortaya çıkan kültürel çatışmanın başlıca sonuçları olarak kabul edilmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Culture, apocalypse, imperialism, clash, conflict

A cultural apocalypse: Apocalyptic impacts of imperialism in E. M. Forster’s A Passage to India

Öz

First emerged as a religious term to designate the end of the world, the idea of apocalypse has evolved into manifold connotations that is associated with any cataclysmic event(s) and case(s) that end(s) up with the complete destruction of the present state with a new beginning. Although it is more often affiliated with the destruction(s) caused by climate crisis and advancements in science and technology, the destruction of a culture through cultural clash(es) between two opposing cultures, namely the East and West, and the results out of these that dehumanise the representatives of the weaker side/East can also be included in the analysis of apocalypse in a broader sense in the context of culture. It is within this focus of interest that E. M. Forster’s masterpiece A Passage to India (1924) has been evaluated as an example for the cultural apocalypse throughout the research, as a result of which the Indians - even their country - is plunged into total apocalypse and become subservient and considered nothing rather than a swine. Controlled under a civil station and isolated from the luxury and comfort the British are free to relish, Indians are drawn as character who are bereft of any freedom and respect from the British in their own land. Thus, the economic and political causes behind the ideology of imperialism that is also intertwined with capitalism in India have been considered as major consequences of the cultural clash that arise as a cultural apocalypse in the lives of native Indians.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Culture, apocalypse, imperialism, clash, conflict

Kaynakça

• Aldrovandi, C. (2014). Apocalyptic Movements in Contemporary Politics: Christian and Jewish Zionism. Palgrave Macmillan.
• Beer, J. (1985). A Passage to India: Essays in Interpretation. Macmillan.
• Bennett, A. (1932). The Journals of Arnold Bennett. Cassell Limited.
• Brandabur, C. Time's Fool: Essays in Context. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2016.
• Bradbury, M. (2001). The Modern British Novel. Penguin.
• Brooker, P. (1999). A Glossary of Cultural Theory. Arnold.
• Brunel, P. (1996). Companion to Literary Myths, Heroes and Archetypes. Routledge.
• Cavaliero, G. (1986). A reading of E.M. Forster. Macmillan.
• Chiesa, L., & Toscano, A. (2009). The Italian Difference: Between Nihilism and Biopolitics. Re.press.
• Childs, P., and Patrick W. An Introduction to Post-Colonial Theory. Prentice Hall, 1997.
• Childs, P., & Williams, R. J. P. (2014). An Introduction To Post-Colonial Theory. Routledge.
• Chilcote, R. H. (2000). Theories of Comparative Political Economy. Routledge.
• Clubb, R. L. (1963). “A Passage to India: The Meaning of the Marabar Caves”. CLA Journal, 6(3), 184–193.
• Collins, J. J. (1998). The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to the Jewish Matrix of Christianity. Crossroad.
• Corcoran, P. E. (2000). Awaiting Apocalypse. Macmillan Press.
• Disraeli, B. (1847). Tancred, or, The New Crusade (Vol. 1). A. and W. Galignani.
• Drabble, M.. The Oxford Companion to English Literature. Oxford UP, 2000.
• “empire” Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Pearson, 2010, pp. 554.
• Evans, B. I. (1976). A Short History of English Literature. Penguin Books.
• Fenn, R. K. (2005). Dreams of Glory: The Sources of Apocalyptic Terror. Routledge.
• Forster, E. M. (1922). Reflections in India- Too Late? The Nation and the Athenaeum, 30, 612–624.
• Forster, E. M. (1945). A Passage to India. J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd.
• Forster, E. M. (1962). Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson. Edward Arnold Publishers.
• Fraser, G. “The Short Fiction”. The Cambridge Companion to Joseph Conrad, edited by J. H. Stape, Cambridge UP, 1996, 25-44.
• Gardner, P. (1973). E. M. Forster: The Critical Heritage. Routledge.
• Geertz, C. The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. Basic Books, 1973.
• Giddens, A. (1993). New Rules of Sociological Method: A Positive Critique of Interpretative Sociologies. Polity Press.
• Gillie, C. (1983). A Preface to Forster. Longman.
• Gregory, D., Johnston, R., Pratt, G., Watts, M., & Whatmore, S. (Eds.). (2017). The Dictionary of Human Geography. Blackwell.
• Haldane, J. B.S. (2016). Heredity and Politics. Routledge.
• Hardt, M., & Negri, A. (2001). Empire. Harvard University Press.
• Johnson, R. (1986). What is cultural studies anyway? Social Text, (16), 38–80.
• Jonker, L. C. (2016). Defining All-Israel in Chronicles: Multi-levelled Identity Negotiation in Late Persian-Period Yehud. Mohr Siebeck.
• Kermode, F. (2010). Concerning E.M. Forster. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
• Kipling, R. (1892). Barrack-room Ballads and Other Verses. Methuen.
• Klaassen, W. (1992). Living at the End of the Ages: Apocalyptic Expectation in the Radical Reformation. University Press of America.
• Lowe, L. (1991). Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms. Cornell University Press.
• Machiavelli Niccolò. (1975). The Portable Machiavelli. (P. Bondanella & M. Musa, Trans.). Penguin.
• McLeod, J. (2010). Beginning Postcolonialism. Manchester UP.
• Medalie, D. (2016). E. M. Forster's Modernism. Palgrave Macmillan.
• Memmi, A. (2010). The Colonizer and the Colonized. Souvenir Press.
• Mikula, M. (2008). Key Concepts in Cultural Studies. New York: Palgrave.
• Miles, G. B. (1990). Roman and Modern Imperialism: A reassessment. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 32(4), 629–659.
• Moffat, W. (2010) A Great Unrecorded History: A New Life of E.M. Forster. Picador.
• Mukherjee, M. (1974). The Twice Born Fiction: Themes and Techniques of the Indian Novel in English. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd...
• Naik, M. K., Desai, S. K., & Kallapur, S. T. (Eds.). (1971). The Image of India in Western Creative Writing . Karnatak University and Macmillan.
• Randall, S. (2007). Forster and modernism. In D. Bradshaw (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to E. M. Forster (pp. 209–222). essay, Cambridge University Press.
• Ross, S. (2004). Conrad and Empire. University of Missouri Press.
• Said, E. (1994). Culture and Imperialism. Vintage.
• Said, E. (2014). Orientalism. Vintage.
• Sardar, Z., Van Loon, B. V. (2010). Introducing Cultural Studies. Icon Books .
• Satin, N. India in Modern English Fiction. Norwood, 1976.
• Schaefer, R. T. (2008). Encyclopaedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society. Sage.
• Shaheen, M. (2004). E. M. Forster and the Politics of Imperialism. Palgrave Macmillan.
• Sidorsky, D. (2007). The Uses of the Philosophy of G. E. Moore in the Works of E. M. Forster. New Literary History, 38(2), 245–271.
• Singh, J. G., and David D. K. (2017). The Postcolonial World. Routledge.
• Singh, B. (1975). A Survey of Anglo-Indian Fiction. Curzon Press.
• Tan, T. S. (2010). Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia. ISEAS Publishing.
• Trilling, L. (1951). E. M. Forster. The Hogarth Press.
• Wagar, W. W. (1982). Terminal Visions: The Literature of Last Things. Indiana University Press.
• Wójcik D. (1997). The End of The World As We Know It Faith: Fatalism, and Apocalypse in America. New York University Press.