Caught in the Middle: A Conceptual Framework for the Antecedents and Outcomes of Work-Family Guilt in Working Mothers from the Perspective of Gender Roles

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 3 Sayı: 2, 138 - 154

Merve Gerçek

https://doi.org/10.61158/saukad.1495548

Öz

Although there has been progress in achieving gender equality, working mothers continue to encounter significant challenges balancing work and family roles, leading to work-family conflict (WFC) and subsequent feelings of guilt regarding WFC. Work-family guilt (WFG) is an emotional response to imbalances that arise from the demands of both work and family responsibilities. This study aims to develop a conceptual framework for the antecedents and outcomes of WFG among working mothers, addressing the gap in research regarding their guilt experiences. Drawing on the prior studies, this paper proposes that societal, organizational, and individual factors will interact, leading to WFC and subsequently causing WFG, which in turn results in some undesirable consequences in societal, organizational, and individual domains. Among the existing research on WFC, this study stands out for its comprehensive review of the determiners and consequences of WFG from a gender role perspective. The suggested framework seeks to provide guidance to working mothers, policymakers, managers, and human resource experts on reducing WFG among working mothers, thus enhancing their overall well-being and productivity. This study explores WFG from a gender standpoint, highlighting the significance of employing gender-sensitive strategies for addressing challenges at both individual, organizational, and societal levels.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Work to Family Conflict, Work-Family Guilt, Working Mothers, Gender Roles

Arada Kalmış: Cinsiyet Rolleri Perspektifinden Çalışan Annelerde İş-Aile Suçluluğunun Öncülleri ve Sonuçlarına İlişkin Bir Kavramsal Çerçeve

Öz

Cinsiyet eşitliğinin sağlanmasında ilerleme kaydedilmesine rağmen, çalışan anneler iş ve aile rollerini dengelemede önemli zorluklarla karşılaşmaya devam etmektedirler. Bu durum, iş-aile çatışmasına ve bu çatışmalara yönelik suçluluk duygularına yol açmaktadır. İş-aile suçluluğu, hem iş hem de aile sorumluluklarından kaynaklanan dengesizliklere verilen duygusal bir tepkidir. Bu çalışma, yazında görece sınırlı düzeyde ele alınan çalışan annelerde iş-aile suçluluğunun öncülleri ve sonuçları için kavramsal bir çerçeve geliştirmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Önceki çalışmalara dayanarak bu çalışma, toplumsal, örgütsel ve bireysel etmenlerin etkileşime girerek iş-aile çatışmasına ve iş-aile suçluluğuna neden olacağını ve bunun da toplumsal, örgütsel ve bireysel alanlarda bazı istenmeyen sonuçlara yol açacağını öne sürmektedir. İş-aile çatışması ile ilgili mevcut araştırmalar arasında bu çalışmada önerilen kavramsal çerçeve, iş-aile suçluluğunun belirleyicilerini ve sonuçlarını toplumsal cinsiyet rolü perspektifinden kapsamlı bir şekilde incelemesiyle farklılaşmaktadır. Önerilen kavramsal çerçeve, çalışan annelere, politika yapıcılara, yöneticilere ve insan kaynakları uzmanlarına çalışan annelerde iş-aile suçluluğunu azaltarak genel refah ve üretkenliklerini artırma konusunda rehberlik sağlamayı amaçlamaktadır. Ayrıca bu çalışma, iş-aile suçluluğunu cinsiyet perspektifinden inceleyerek bireysel, örgütsel ve toplumsal düzeylerdeki zorlukları ele almak için cinsiyete duyarlı stratejilerin önemini vurgulamaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

iş aile çatışması, iş aile suçluluğu, çalışan anneler, cinsiyet rolleri

Kaynakça

• Aarntzen, L., Derks, B., van Steenbergen, E., & van der Lippe, T. (2023). When work–family guilt becomes a women's issue: Internalized gender stereotypes predict high guilt in working mothers but low guilt in working fathers. British Journal of Social Psychology, 62(1), 12-29. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12575
• Aarntzen, L., Derks, B., van Steenbergen, E., Ryan, M., & van der Lippe, T. (2019). Work-family guilt as a straightjacket. An interview and diary study on consequences of mothers' work-family guilt. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 115, 103336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2019.103336
• Aarntzen, L., van der Lippe, T., van Steenbergen, E., & Derks, B. (2021). How individual gender role beliefs, organizational gender norms, and national gender norms predict parents’ work-Family guilt in Europe. Community, Work & Family, 24(2), 120-142. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2020.1816901
• Aoyagi, C., & Munro, A. (2024). Guilt, gender, and work-life balance: A choice experiment. Journal of choice modelling, 50, 100464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocm.2023.100464
• Ataca, B. (2009). Turkish family structure and functioning. In S. Bekman & A. Aksu-Koc (Eds.), Perspectives on human development, family, and culture (pp. 108–125). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511720437.010
• Aycan, Z., & Eskin, M. (2005). Relative contributions of childcare, spousal support, and organizational support in reducing work–family conflict for men and women: The case of Turkey. Sex Roles, 53, 453-471. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-7134-8
• Barnett, R. C., & Gareis, K. C. (2002). Full-time and reduced-hours work schedules and marital quality: A study of female physicians with young children. Work and Occupations, 29(3), 364-379. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888402029003005
• Boer, C. (1977). The Polls: Women at Work. Public Opinion Quarterly, 41, 268-277. https://doi.org/10.1086/268383. Bölingen, F., Hermida Carrillo, A., & Weller, I. (2023). Opening the doors for spillovers: A contingency view of the effects of work from home on the work–home interface. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1191657. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1191657
• Borelli, J. L., Nelson, S. K., River, L. M., Birken, S. A., & Moss-Racusin, C. (2017a). Gender differences in work-family guilt in parents of young children. Sex Roles, 76, 356-368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0579-0
• Borelli, J. L., Nelson-Coffey, S. K., River, L. M., Birken, S. A., & Moss-Racusin, C. (2017b). Bringing work home: Gender and parenting correlates of work-family guilt among parents of toddlers. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26, 1734-1745. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0693-9
• Budig, M. (2004). Feminism and the family. The Blackwell companion to the sociology of families, 416-434.
• Chen, L., Chen, N., Qu, Y., Hussain, M. A., & Qin, Y. (2024). The cost of guilt: Unpacking the emotional mechanism between work-to-family conflict and unethical pro-family behavior. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 35(2), 220-255. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2023.2227769
• Chen, S., & Cheng, M. I. (2023). Exploring the reciprocal nature of work-family guilt and its effects on work/family-related performance. Community, Work & Family, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2023.2192379
• Clark, M. E., & Bower, J. D. (2016). Career experiences of women with major financial barriers. The Career Development Quarterly, 64(4), 373-386. https://doi.org/10.1002/cdq.12072
• Cleveland, J. N., Fisher, G. G., & Sawyer, K. B. (2015). Work–life equality: The importance of a level playing field at home. In Ed. Mills, M. J. Gender and the work-family experience: An intersection of two domains (pp. 177-199), Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08891-4_10
• Boer, C. (1977). The polls: Women at work. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 41(2), 268-277. https://doi.org/10.1086/268383
• Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2012). Social role theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (pp. 458–476). Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n49
• Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Diekman, A. B. (2000). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal. The Developmental Social Psychology of Gender, 12(174), 9781410605245-12. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n49
• Elmas-Atay, S., & Gerçek, M. (2021). İş-yaşam çatışmasının Koronavirüs (COVID-19) pandemisi sürecinde yeniden değerlendirilmesi: Kadın akademisyenler açısından nitel bir araştırma. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 24(45), 203-241.
• Federici, S. (2020). Revolution at point zero: Housework, reproduction, and feminist struggle. PM Press.
• Foucreault, A., Ménard, J., Houlfort, N., Trépanier, S. G., & Lavigne, G. L. (2023). How work-family guilt, involvement with children and spouse’s support influence parents’ life satisfaction in a context of work-family conflict. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 32(4), 1065-1077. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02443-6
• Gibbons, J. L., Hamby, B. A., & Dennis, W. D. (1997). Researching gender‐role ideologies internationally and cross‐culturally. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(1), 151-170. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00106.x
• Glavin, P., & Schieman, S. (2012). Work–family role blurring and work–family conflict: The moderating influence of job resources and job demands. Work and Occupations, 39(1), 71-98. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888411406295
• Góis, A. C., Caiado, B., & Moreira, H. (2023). Parenting During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Portugal: The Mediating Role of Work-Family Guilt in the Relationship Between Self-Compassion and Mindful Parenting in a Sample of Working Mothers. Mindfulness, 14(5), 1183-1191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02114-7
• Golding, J. M. (1990). Division of household labor, strain, and depressive symptoms among Mexican Americans and Non‐Hispanic Whites. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14(1), 103-117. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1990.tb00007.x
• Gómez-Ortiz, O., & Roldán-Barrios, A. (2021). Work–family guilt in Spanish parents: Analysis of the measurement, antecedents and outcomes from a gender perspective. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(15), 8229. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158229
• Grant, M. J., & Booth, A. (2009). A typology of reviews: An analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies. Health information & libraries journal, 26(2), 91-108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x
• Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of management review, 10(1), 76-88. https://doi.org/10.2307/258214
• Greenhaus, J. H., & Powell, G. N. (2003). When work and family collide: Deciding between competing role demands. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 90(2), 291-303. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-5978(02)00519-8
• Hartmann, H. I. (1979). The unhappy marriage of Marxism and feminism: Towards a more progressive union. Capital & Class, 3(2), 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1177/030981687900800102
• Hays, S. (1996). The cultural contradictions of motherhood. Yale University Press.
• Hochwarter, W. A., Perrewé, P. L., Meurs, J. A., & Kacmar, C. (2007). The interactive effects of work-induced guilt and ability to manage resources on job and life satisfaction. Journal of occupational health psychology, 12(2), 125-135. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.12.2.125
• Hongbo, L., Waqas, M., Tariq, H., & Yahya, F. (2020). Bringing home the bacon: Testing a moderated mediation model of job insecurity, work–family conflict, and parent–child attachment. Social Science Information, 59(4), 704-729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018420973888
• Ilies, R., Schwind, K. M., Wagner, D. T., Johnson, M. D., DeRue, D. S., & Ilgen, D. R. (2007). When can employees have a family life? The effects of daily workload and affect on work-family conflict and social behaviors at home. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(5), 1368. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.5.1368
• Jacobs, J. A., & Gerson, K. (2004). Understanding changes in American working time: A synthesis. In Eds. Epsrein C. F. & Kalleberg, A. L., Fighting for time: Shifting boundaries of work and social life (pp. 25-45), Russel Sage Foundation.
• Kahn, R. L., Wolfe, D. M., Quinn, R. P., Snoek, J. D., & Rosenthal, R. A. (1964). Organizational stress: Studies in role conflict and ambiguity. Wiley.
• Kelly, E. L., Ammons, S. K., Chermack, K., & Moen, P. (2010). Gendered challenge, gendered response: Confronting the ideal worker norm in a white-collar organization. Gender & Society, 24(3), 281-303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243210372073
• Korabik, K. (2015). The intersection of gender and work–family guilt. Gender and the work-family experience: An intersection of two domains, In Ed. Mills, M. J. Gender and the work-family experience: An intersection of two domains (pp. 141-157), Springer. 141-157. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08891-4_8
• Liu, Y., Wang, M., Chang, C. H., Shi, J., Zhou, L., & Shao, R. (2015). Work–family conflict, emotional exhaustion, and displaced aggression toward others: The moderating roles of workplace interpersonal conflict and perceived managerial family support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(3), 793. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038387
• Livingston, B. A., & Judge, T. A. (2008). Emotional responses to work-family conflict: An examination of gender role orientation among working men and women. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 207–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.207
• Lyness, K. S., & Judiesch, M. K. (2014). Gender egalitarianism and work–life balance for managers: Multisource perspectives in 36 countries. Applied Psychology, 63(1), 96-129. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12011
• Maclean, E. I., Andrew, B., & Eivers, A. (2021). The motherload: Predicting experiences of work-interfering-with-family guilt in working mothers. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 30, 169-181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01852-9
• Martínez, P., Carrasco, M. J., Aza, G., Blanco, A., & Espinar, I. (2011). Family gender role and guilt in Spanish dual-earner families. Sex Roles, 65, 813-826. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0031-4
• McElwain, A. K. (2008). An examination of the reliability and validity of the Work-Family Guilt Scale (Doctoral dissertation), University of Guelph.
• McElwain, A. K., Korabik, K., & Rosin, H. M. (2005). An examination of gender differences in work-family conflict. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 37(4), 283. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087263
• Minnotte, K. L., Minnotte, M. C., Pedersen, D. E., Mannon, S. E., & Kiger, G. (2010). His and her perspectives: Gender ideology, work-to-family conflict, and marital satisfaction. Sex roles, 63, 425-438.
• Morgan, W. B., & King, E. B. (2012). The association between work–family guilt and pro‐and anti‐social work behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 68(4), 684-703. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9818-y
• Morgenroth, T., & Heilman, M. E. (2017). Should I stay or should I go? Implications of maternity leave choice for perceptions of working mothers. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 72, 53-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.04.008
• Nisic, N., & Trübner, M. (2024). Doing housework in context: Dyadic analyses of the division of domestic labor in contemporary couples. Journal of Family Issues, 45(6), 1378-1402. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0192513X231172285
• Oatley, K., & Jenkins, J. M. (1992). Human emotions: Function and dysfunction. Annual Review of Psychology, 43(1), 55-85. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.43.020192.000415
• O'Neil, J. M. (1981). Patterns of gender role conflict and strain: Sexism and fear of femininity in men's lives. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 60(4), 203-210. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2164-4918.1981.tb00282.x
• O'Shea, D., Barkoukis, V., McIntyre, T., Loukovitis, A., Gomez, C., Moritzer, S., ... & Theodorou, N. (2021). Who's to blame? The role of power and attributions in susceptibility to match-fixing. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 55, 101955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.101955
• Prentice, D. A., & Carranza, E. (2002). What women and men should be, shouldn't be, are allowed to be, and don't have to be: The contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26(4), 269-281. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00066
• Prince-Cooke, L. (2006). Policy, preferences, and patriarchy: The division of domestic labor in East Germany, West Germany, and the United States. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, 13(1), 117-143. https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxj005
• Rajadhyaksha, U., Korabik, K., & Aycan, Z. (2015). Gender, gender-role ideology, and the work–family interface: A cross-cultural analysis. In Ed. Mills, M. J. Gender and the work-family experience: An intersection of two domains (pp. 99-117), Springer.
• Samad, A., Reaburn, P., & Di Milia, L. (2015). The contribution of job strain, social support and working hours in explaining work–family conflict. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 53(3), 281-295. https://doi.org/10.1111/1744-7941.12058
• Shapiro, D. N., & Stewart, A. J. (2011). Parenting stress, perceived child regard, and depressive symptoms among stepmothers and biological mothers. Family Relations, 60(5), 533-544. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00665.x
• Shpancer, N., Melick, K. M., Sayre, P. S., & Spivey, A. T. (2006). Quality of care attributions to employed versus stay‐at‐home mothers. Early Child Development and Care, 176(2), 183-193. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430500039531
• Singe, S. M., Rynkiewicz, K. M., & Eason, C. M. (2022). Parental perspectives of work-family conflict and guilt in collegiate athletic trainers: A descriptive qualitative design. Journal of Athletic Training, 57(3), 255-263. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-0654.20
• Spitze, G. (1999). Getting help with housework: Household resources and social networks. Journal of family issues, 20(6), 724-745. https://doi.org/10.1177/019251399020006001
• Sutton, K. L., & Noe, R. A. (2005). Family-friendly programs and work-life integration: More myth than magic?. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
• Tangney, J. P. (1995). Shame and guilt in interpersonal relationships. In J. P. Tangney & K. W. Fischer (Eds.), Self-conscious emotions: The psychology of shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride (pp. 114–139). Guilford Press.
• ten Brummelhuis, L. L., & Bakker, A. B. (2012). A resource perspective on the work–home interface: The work–home resources model. American Psychologist, 67(7), 545–556. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027974
• Timurturkan, M. (2020). Özel sektörde çalışan yönetici kadınların annelik anlatıları: Deneyimler, beklentiler ve annelik ideolojileri. İnsan ve Toplum, 10(1), 107-143. https://doi.org/10.12658/M0328
• Uysal Irak, D., Kalkışım, K., & Yıldırım, M. (2020). Emotional support makes the difference: Work-family conflict and employment related guilt among employed mothers. Sex Roles, 82, 53-65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01035-x
• Vieira, J. M., Ávila, M., & Matos, P. M. (2012). Attachment and parenting: The mediating role of work‐family balance in Portuguese parents of preschool children. Family Relations, 61(1), 31-50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00680.x
• Wang, Y., & Peng, J. (2017). Work–family conflict and depression in Chinese professional women: The mediating roles of job satisfaction and life satisfaction. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 15, 394-406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-017-9736-0
• Watts, L. L., Frame, M. C., Moffett, R. G., Van Hein, J. L., & Hein, M. (2015). The relationship between gender, perceived career barriers, and occupational aspirations. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 45(1), 10-22. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12271
• Williams, J. C., Berdahl, J. L., & Vandello, J. A. (2016). Beyond work-life “integration”. Annual Review of Psychology, 67(1), 515-539. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033710
• Young, M., & Schieman, S. (2018). Scaling back and finding flexibility: Gender differences in parents' strategies to manage work–family conflict. Journal of Marriage and Family, 80(1), 99-118. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12435
• Zhang, H., Tang, L., Ye, Z., Zou, P., Shao, J., Wu, M., ... & Mu, S. (2020). The role of social support and emotional exhaustion in the association between work-family conflict and anxiety symptoms among female medical staff: A moderated mediation model. BMC psychiatry, 20, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02673-2
• Zhang, M., Li, H., & Foley, S. (2014). Prioritizing work for family. Journal of Chinese Human Resources Management, 5, 14–31. doi:10.1108/jchrm-12-2013-0034
• Zhang, Y., Rasheed, M. I., & Luqman, A. (2020). Work–family conflict and turnover intentions among Chinese nurses: The combined role of job and life satisfaction and perceived supervisor support. Personnel Review, 49(5), 1140-1156. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCHRM-12-2013-0034
• Zheng, J., Gou, X., Li, H., Xia, N., & Wu, G. (2021). Linking work–family conflict and burnout from the emotional resource perspective for construction professionals. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business, 14(5), 1093-1115. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMPB-06-2020-0181