TEORİ VE PRATİKTE TERÖRİST ÖRGÜTLERİN ŞEHİR EYLEM YÖNELİMLERİ VE STRATEJİLERİ

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 33 Sayı: 1, 101 - 144, 21.06.2023

Mehmet Kurum

https://doi.org/10.54078/savsad.1171527

Öz

Terörist örgütler içinde bulundukları zaman ve zemine göre kırsal alanlar veya şehirleri veya her iki alanı aynı anda eylem ve faaliyet alanı olarak kullanabilmektedirler. 19. Yüzyılda endüstrileşmenin sonucu ortaya çıkan hızlı şehirleşme bir taraftan modern terörist hareketlerin ortaya çıkmasının zeminini oluştururken diğer taraftan terörist hareketlerin hem örgütlenme ve eylem alanı hem de propagandalarının hedefleri olmuşlardır. 20. yüzyılın başlarından itibaren ulusal kurtuluş hareketleriyle ortaya çıkan ve Soğuk Savaş döneminde devam eden süreçte terörist grupların bazıları şehirleri, bazıları kırsal alanları, bazıları ise hem şehirleri hem de kırsal alanları fiziki alan olarak kullanmışlardır. El Kaide tarafından 11 Eylül 2001’de ABD’de ve 2011 sonrasında ortaya çıkan DEAŞ tarafından gerçekleştirilen terör saldırıları, şehirlerde yapılan terörist eylemlerin şiddetinin hangi seviyelere kadar ulaşabileceğini ve insanlar üzerinde yaratabileceği korku ikliminin dehşet verici örneklerini oluşturmuştur. Nitekim hem eylem sayısı hem de öldürücülük açısından şehirler terör eylemlerinin ana hedefi haline gelmeye başlamıştır. Gelecekte dünyada şehirleşmenin hızlı ve kontrolsüz bir şekilde artması, şehirlerin hem fiziki hem de insani boyutta karmaşıklaşması ve hassasiyetlerin çeşitlenmesi, şehirlerin terörist örgüt ve hareketlerin temel eylem alanı haline gelmesine neden olacağı öngörülmektedir. Nitel boyutta ele alınan çalışmada; dünyada hızlı ve kontrolsüz bir şekilde karmaşıklaşan şehirlerin terörist örgüt ve hareketler tarafından nasıl istismar edilebileceği ve güvenlik birimlerinin emniyet ve asayişi sağlamada ne gibi zorluklar ile karşılaşabileceğine ilişkin hususların incelenmesi amaçlanmaktadır. Bu kapsamda çalışmada ilk olarak tarihsel süreçte terörist örgütlerin hangi stratejik ve taktik düşünceler ile şehir eylemlerine yöneldikleri ortaya konulacaktır. Müteakiben şehirlerin fiziki ve sosyal boyutta gelişiminin terörist örgütlerin eylem dinamikleri ile güvenlik kuvvetlerinin operasyonel dinamiklerine etkileri incelenecektir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Terör, Terörist Örgüt, Marighella, Şehirleşme, Şehir Eylem Stratejisi

Urban Action Tendencies and Strategies of Terrorist Organizations in Theory and Practice

Öz

Depending on temporal and spatial considerations, terrorist organizations are able to use rural areas or urban areas or both at the same time as fields of action and activity. The rapid urbanization, that emerged as a result of industrialization in the 19th century; on the one hand, formed the basis for the emergence of modern terrorist movements, on the other hand, became an area for both the organization and action of terrorist movements and a target of their propaganda. Within the time period that emerged with the national liberation movements, which started from the onset of the 20th century, and continued during the Cold War period, some of the terrorist groups used urban areas, some used rural areas, and some used both areas as physical fields of activity. The terrorist attacks carried out by Al-Qaeda in the USA on September 11, 2001, and executed by DAESH, which emerged after Al-Qaeda and year 2011, have set terrifying examples of to what extent the violence of terrorist acts in urban areas can reach and the climate of fear it can create on people. As a matter of fact, urban areas have started to become the main target of terrorist acts in terms of both the number of actions and lethality. It is predicted that in the future, the rapid and uncontrolled increase of urbanization in the world, the complexity of urban areas in both physical and human dimensions, and the diversification of vulnerabilities, will cause urban areas to become the main fields of action of terrorist organizations and movements. In the study, in which the subject was discussed in a qualitative context; the aim is to examine the issues related to how urban areas, which are becoming more complex in a rapid and an uncontrolled manner throughout the World, can be exploited by terrorist organizations and movements, and the challenges the security units may encounter while providing public safety and security. In this context, firstly, in the historical process, based on which strategic and tactical thoughts the terrorist organizations have turned to activities in urban areas will be studied in this article. Subsequently, the effects of the physical and social development of urban areas on the action dynamics of terrorist organizations and on the operational dynamics of security forces will be examined.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Terror, Terrorist Organization, Marighella, Urbanization, Urban Action Strategy

Kaynakça

• Baumann, C. E. (1973). The diplomatic kidnappings: A revolutionary tactic of urban terrorism. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
• Beall, J. (2007). Cities, terrorism and urban wars of the 21st century, Crisis States Research Centre, Working Paper no. 9.
• Beccaro, A. (2018). Modern irregular warfare: The ISIS case study. Small Wars and Insurgencies, 29(2). 207-228.
• Chaliand G. ve Blin, A. (2007). Zealots and assassins. İçinde G. Chaliand ve A. Blin (Ed.), The History of terrorism: From antiquity to al Qaeda (s.55-78). Londra: University of California Press Ltd.
• Chaliand G. ve Blin, A. (2007a). The “golden age” of terrorism. İçinde G. Chaliand ve A. Blin (Ed.), The History of terrorism: From antiquity to al Qaeda (s.175-196). Londra: University of California Press Ltd.
• Chaliand G. ve Blin, A. (2007b). From 1968 to radical Islam. İçinde G. Chaliand ve A. Blin (Ed.), The History of terrorism: From antiquity to al Qaeda (s.221-254). Londra: University of California Press Ltd.
• Demir, C.K. (2018). Terörizm ve terörizmle mücadele. İçinde G. Sarı ve C.K. Demir. (Ed.), Teoriden Uygulamaya Güvenlik Üzerine (s.159-206). Ankara: Gazi Kitabevi.
• Ehrlich, P. R. ve Liu, J. (2006). Socioeconomic and demographic roots of terrorism. İçinde J.F. Forest (Ed.), The making of a terrorist: Recruitment, training, and root causes (s.160-171). Westport: Praeger Security International.
• Engı̇n, V. (2001, Mayıs). Osmanlı başkentinde Ermeni terörü. Popüler Tarih, 34-38.
• Esen, H. (2017, Ağustos 18). Avrupa'daki büyük terör saldırıları. Mayıs 4, 2020 tarihinde https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/avrupadaki-buyuk-teror-saldirilari-/886942 adresinden alınmıştır.
• Gerwehr, S. ve Hubbard, K. (2007). What is terrorism: Key elements and history. İçinde B. Bruce, L.M. Brown, L.E. Beutler, J.N. Breckenridge ve P.G. Zimbardo (Ed.), Psychology of Terrorism (s. 87-100). New York: Oxford University Press.
• Glenn, R. W. (2005). Terrorism and cities: A target rich environment. İçinde D. Dilegge, R. J. Bunker, J.P Sullivan ve A. Keshavarz (Ed.), Blood and concrete: 21st century conflict in urban centers and megacities (s. 1-31). Bloomington: Xlibris Corp.
• Global Terrorism Database (GTD), Mayıs 25, 2020 tarihinde https://start.umd.edu/gtd/ adresinden erişilmiştir.
• Graham, S. (2004). Introduction: Cities, warfare, and states of emergency. İçinde S.Graham (Ed.), Cities, war, and terrorism: Towards an urban geopolitics (s. 1-25). Malden: Blackwell Publishing.
• Hemmingby, C. (2017). Exploring the continuum of lethality: Militant Islamists' targeting preferences in Europe. Perspectives on Terrorism, 11(5), 25-41.
• Hills, A. (2004). Continuity and discontinuity: The Grammar of urban military operations, İçinde S.Graham (Ed.), Cities, war, and terrorism: Towards an urban geopolitics (s. 231-246). Malden: Blackwell Publishing.
• Hoffman, B. (2006). Inside terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Hubac-Occhipinti, O. (2007). Anarchist terrorists of the nineteenth century. İçinde G. Chaliand ve A. Blin (Ed.), The history of terrorism: From antiquity to al Qaeda (s.113-131). Londra: University of California Press Ltd.
• İçişleri Bakanlığının Uluslararası Af Örgütü’nün Raporuna İlişkin Basın Açıklaması (2017, Ocak 23). Ekim 18, 2018 tarihinde https://www.icisleri.gov.tr/uluslararasi-af-orgutunun-raporuna-iliskin-basin-aciklamasi adresinden alınmıştır.
• Jenkins, B. M. (1971). The five stages of urban guerrilla warfare: Challenge of the 1970s. Santa Monica: Rand Corporation.
• Jensen R. (2004). Daggers, rifles and dynamite: Anarchist terrorism in nineteenth century europe. Terrorism and Political Violence, 16(1), 116-153.
• Kilberg, J. (2012). A basic model explaining terrorist group organizational structure. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 35(11), 810–830.
• Kiras, J. (2007). Terrorism and irregular warfare. J. Baylis, J. Wirtz, E. Cohen ve S.G. Colin (Ed.), Strategy in the contemporary world: An Introduction to strategic studies (s. 185-207). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Kurum, M. (2017). Terörist örgütlerin güvenli ortamları ve PKK. Ankara: Nobel Bilimsel Eserler.
• Laqueur, W. (1999). The new terrorism: Fanaticism and the arms of mass destruction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Laqueur, W. (2001). A history of terrorism. Brunswick, New Jersey: Transactions Publishers.
• Le Blanc, J. (2013). The Urban environment and its influences on insurgent campaigns. Terrorism and Political Violence, 25(5), 798–819.
• Lucas, R. (2020). Taking to the streets: the Kurdistan Workers’ Party and the urbanization of insurgency, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 31(1), 61–86.
• Marcuse, P. (2004). The ‘‘war on terrorism’’ and life in cities after September 11, 2001, İçinde S. Graham (Ed.), Cities, war, and terrorism: Towards an urban geopolitics (s. 263-275). Malden: Blackwell Publishing.
• Marighella, C. (2003). Şehir gerillasının el kitabı. Eriş Yayınları.
• Martin, G. (2003). Understanding terrorism: Challenges, perspectives, and issues. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publication.
• O’Neill, B. (2005). Insurgency and terrorism: From revolution to apocalypse. Washington, D.C.: Potomac Book.
• Rapoport, D. C. (2004). The four waves of modern terrorism. İçinde A.K. Cronin, ve J.M Ludes (Ed.), Attacking terrorism: Elements of a grand strategy (s. 46-73). Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
• Raymond, G.A. (2003). The evolving strategies of political terrorism. C.W. Kegley (Ed.), The new global terrorism: Characteristics, causes and controls (ss. 71-83). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
• Spencer, J.(2019). Urban warfare studies. İçinde D. Dilegge, R. J. Bunker, J.P Sullivan ve A. Keshavarz (Ed.), Blood and concrete: 21st century conflict in urban centers and megacities (s. Xxxix-lx). Bloomington: Xlibris Corp.
• Staniland, P. (2010). Cities on fire: Social mobilization, state policy, and urban ınsurgency, Comparative Political Studies, 43(12), 1623–1649.
• Sullivan, J.P. ve Elkus, A. (2019). Postcard from Mumbai: Modern urban siege. İçinde D. Dilegge, R. J. Bunker, J.P Sullivan ve A. Keshavarz (Ed.), Blood and concrete: 21st century conflict in urban centers and megacities (s. 32-53). Bloomington: Xlibris Corp.
• Stern, J. ve Berger, J.M. (2015). ISIS: The state of terror. Londra: William Collins.
• Şenışık, P. (2017). Osmanlı Makedonyası’nda şı̇ddet ve Nı̇san 1903 Olayları. Türkiyat Mecmuası, 27(1), 289-303.
• Taw, J. ve Hoffman, B. (1995). The urbanization of insurgency: The Potential challenge to U.S. army operations. Small Wars and Insurgencies, 6(1), 68–87.
• Thornton T.P. (1964). Terror as a weapon of political agitation. İçinde H. Eckstein. (Ed.), Internal War: Problems and Approaches, The Free Press.
• Valiyev, A. (2007). Urban terrorism: Do terrorists target cities and why. (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi). University of Louisville, Louisville.
• Warren, R. (2004). City streets - the war zones of globalization: Democracy and military operations on urban terrain in the early 21st century. İçinde S. Graham (Ed.), Cities, war, and terrorism: Towards an urban geopolitics (s. 214-230). Malden: Blackwell Publishing.
• Wilkinson, P. (2011). Terrorism versus democracy: The liberal state response. Londra: Routledge.
• Yeşiltaş, M. ve Özçelik, N. (2016). PKK terörünün yeni dinamikleri: Radikalleşme ve şehir çatışması. İstanbul: SETA Yayınları 157.