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Examining Coup-proofing in Democracies Up-close: The Case of Spain in Civil-Military Relations

Yıl 2020, , 145 - 185, 31.01.2020
https://doi.org/10.21550/sosbilder.591754

Öz

Coup-proofing is defined as the entire set of
strategies intended to ensure the continuity of democratic regimes and their
alternatives. Even though the claim that democratic political systems can
encounter coup risks is acknowledged by studies on coup-proofing, the
precautions placed under analysis have predominantly been of the type that
political systems with a poor democratic record can implement. The experiences
of political systems undergoing democratic transition and consolidation when
confronted by coup attempts and the steps they take to prevent the repetition
of these attempts have rarely been scrutinized. The principal aim of this study
is to trace the coup-proofing strategies in political systems that are
democratizing. Spain’s journey points out how lessons contributing to the
advance of democracy can be learnt from coup attempts and the possibility of
repetition can be contained. The steps taken by Spain, which is considered to
constitute an example and a model in transitioning to democracy, suggests what
measures can be put into practice without eroding the quality of the democratic
regime. While coup-proofing was aimed through political liberalization,
transformation of the composition of the military cadres via appointments,
appeasement, limited resort to punitive measures, and rule through assembling,
the search for international alliances was the method resorted to in managing
risks involved in the process. The main finding is that, in a manner that
diverges from the theoretical discussion on coup-proofing, it is possible to
safeguard democratic consolidation in the company of steps geared towards
observing a minimal degree of punitive measures and assembling under one roof.

Kaynakça

  • Acemoglu, Daron vd. (2010). “A Theory of Military Dictatorships”. American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, C. 2, S. 1, s. 1-42.
  • Agüero, Felipe (1988). “Democracia en España y Supremacia Civil”. REIS, C. 44, s. 23-50.
  • ____________ (1995). Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • Albrecht, Holger ve Ferdinand Eibl (2018). “How to Keep Officers in the Barracks: Causes, Agents, and Types of Military Coups”. International Studies Quarterly, C. 62, S. 2, s. 315-328.
  • Alpert, Michael (2010). “El Papel del Ejército (1931-1991)”. Los Ejércitos del Franquismo (1939-1975), Ed: Fernando Puell de la Villa ve Sonia Alda Mejías, Madrid: Instituto Universitario General Gutiérrez Mellado-UNED, s. 195-207.
  • Barahona de Brito, Alexandra ve Mario Sznajder (2010). “The Politics of the Past: the Southern Cone and Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective”. South European Society and Politics, C. 15, S. 3, s. 487-505.
  • Barany, Zoltan. (2011). “Comparing the Arab Revolts: The Role of the Military”. Journal of Democracy, C. 22, S. 4, s. 28-39.
  • _____________ (2013). “Armies and Revolutions”. Journal of Democracy, C. 24, S. 2, s. 62-76.
  • Barrios Ramos, Raquel (2002). “El Camino Hacia la Democracia en las Fuerzas Armadas: La Unión Militar Democrática”. Actas del III Simposio de Historia Actual, Ed: Carlos Navajas Zubeldía, Logroño: Gobierno de La Rioja, Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, s. 483-500.
  • Bausch, Andrew W. (2018). “Coup-Proofing and Military Inefficiencies: An Experiment”. International Interactions, C. 44, S. 1, s. 1-32.
  • Belkin, Aaron ve Evan Schofer (2003). “Toward a Structural Understanding of Coup Risk”. Journal of Conflict Resolution, C. 47, S. 5, s. 594-620.
  • Bell, Curtis (2016). “Coup d’État and Democracy”. Comparative Political Studies, C. 49, S. 9, s. 1-34.
  • Bermeo, Nancy (1994). “Sacrifice, Sequence, and Strength in Successful Dual Transitions: Lessons from Spain”. The Journal of Politics, C. 56, S. 3, s. 601-627.
  • Brown, Cameron S. vd. (2015). “Recouping after Coup-Proofing: Compromised Military Effectiveness and Strategic Substitution”. International Interactions, C. 42, S. 1, s. 1-30.
  • Castro Berrojo, Luis (2015). “Tres Versiones sobre el Golpe del 23-F…o Alguna Más”. Hispania Nova. Revista de Historia Contemporánea, C. 13, s. 294-307.
  • Colomer, Josep Maria (1995). Game Theory and the Transition to Democracy. Hants: Edward Elgar Publishing.
  • Croissant, Aurel vd. (2018). “Mass Protests and the Military”. Journal of Democracy, C. 29, S. 3, s. 141-155.
  • De Andrés Sanz, Jesús de Andrés (2001). “Quieto Todo el Mundo!- El 23-F y la Transición Española”. Historia y Política: Ideas, Procesos y Movimientos Sociales, C. 5, s. 55-88.
  • De Bruin, Erica (2017). “Preventing Coups d’état: How Counterbalancing Works”. Journal of Conflict Resolution, C. 62, S. 7, s. 1-26.
  • Degaut, Marcos (2017). “Out of the Barracks: The Role of the Military in Democratic Revolutions”. Armed Forces & Society, s. 1-23.
  • Finer, Samuel E. (1962). The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics. London: Pall Mall Press.
  • Galaup, Laura ve Carlos del Castillo (2018). “Defensa Ordena Abrir un Expediente a los cinco Militares en la Reserva que Firmaron el Manifiesto Franquista” eldiario.es. https://www.eldiario.es/sociedad/Ejercito-memoria_historica-Franco-militares-franquismo_0_816469363.html (Erişim Tarihi: 11.04.2019).
  • Giménez Martínez, Miguel Ángel (2014). “El Ejército de Franco: Un Gigante con Pies de Barro”. Passagens. Revista Internacional de História Política y Cultura Jurídica, C. 6, S. 3, s. 439-479.
  • Gómez Rosa, Fidel (2018). “Unión Militar Democrática: Balance de una Experiencia Histórica”. La Albolafia: Revista de Humanidades y Cultura, C. 14, s. 38-59.
  • Hooper, John (2006). The New Spaniards. London: Penguin Books.
  • Huntington, Samuel P. (1957). The Soldier and the State. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Javier Olivas, José (2013). “El Ejército, ¿Otra Institución en el Punto de Mira?” eldiario.es. http://www.eldiario.es/agendapublica/blog/ejercito-institucion-punto-mira_6_112398768.html (Erişim Tarihi: 23.03.2019).
  • Jiménez, José Luis R. (2018). “Antecedentes y Primeras Misiones en el Exterior de las Fuerzas Armadas”. La Albolafia: Revista de Humanidades y Cultura, C. 14, s. 134-155.
  • Kuehn, David (2017). “Midwives or Gravediggers of Democracy? The Military’s Impact on Democratic Development”. Democratization, C. 24, S. 5, s. 783-800.
  • León Solís, Fernando (2007). “23 F- Redemption or Derailment of Spanish Democracy?”. International Journal of Iberian Studies, C. 20, S. 3, s. 207-229.
  • Mena Aguado, José (2006). “Discurso del Teniente General José Mena Aguado en la Pascua Militar”, El Mundo.
  • https://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2006/01/06/espana/1136570580.html (Erişim Tarihi: 05.02.2019).
  • Monedero, Juan Carlos (2014). La Transición Contada a Nuestros Padres: Nocturno de la Democracia Española. Madrid: Catarata.
  • Muñoz Bolaños, Roberto (2010). “La Institución Militar en la Posguerra (1939-1945)”. Los Ejércitos del Franquismo (1939-1975), Ed: Fernando Puell de la Villa ve Sonia Alda Mejías, Madrid: Instituto Universitario General Gutiérrez Mellado-UNED, s. 15-54.
  • ____________________ (2013). “Las Fuerzas Armadas y la Legalización del PCE”. Rubrica Contemporanea, C. 2, S. 4, s. 101-120.
  • _____________________ (2014). “Un Análisis Incompleto de un Acontecimiento Excepcional: la Literatura Sobre el Golpe de Estado del 23-F (1981-2014)”. Historiografías, C. 9, s. 81-109.
  • _____________________ (2015). 23-F: Los Golpes de Estado. Madrid: Última Línea.
  • _____________________ (2018). “Militares y Civiles: Movimientos Involucionistas el el Proceso de Transición y Consolidación Democrática (1975-1986)”. La Albolafia: Revista de Humanidades y Cultura, C. 14, s. 134-155.
  • Navajas Zubeldía, Carlos (2014). “La Transición Militar, Una Transición Larga (1975-1989)”. Actas del IV Congreso Internacional de Historia de Nuestro Tiempo, Ed: Carlos Navajas Zubeldía ve D. Iturriaga Barco, Logroño: Univerisdad de La Rioja, s. 27-45.
  • One Earth Future Foundation Policy Brief (2016). “Why Democratization Does Not Solve the Coup Problem”, https://oefresearch.org/sites/default/files/documents/publications/democratization-coups.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 06.03.2019).
  • Özçer, Akın (2010). “İspanya’da 23-F Darbe Girişimi ve Askerin Demokratik Denetimi Süreci”. Türkiye Siyasetinde Ordunun Rolü: Asker-Sivil İlişkileri, Güvenlik Sektörü ve Sivil Denetim, İstanbul: Heinrich Böll Stiftung Derneği Türkiye Temsilciliği, s. 90-95.
  • Palacios, Jesús (2011). 23-F, El Rey y su Secreto. Madrid: Libros Libres.
  • Payne, Stanley G. (2017). En Defensa de España. Barcelona: Espasa.
  • Pilster, Ulrich ve Tobias Böhmelt (2015). “The Impact of Institutional Coup-Proofing on Coup Attempts and Coup Outcomes”. International Interactions, C. 41, S. 1, s. 158-182.
  • Pinilla Martín, Enrique (2006). “La Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica en España”. El Derecho a la Memoria, Ed: Felipe Gómez Isa, Bilbao: Giza Eskubideak Derechos Humanos, s. 529-548.
  • Powell, Charles (1996). Juan Carlos of Spain: Self-Made Monarch. Wiltshire: MacMillan Press.
  • Powell, Jonathan (2012). “Determinants of the Attempting and Outcome of Coups d’état”. Journal of Conflict Resolution, C. 56, S. 6, s. 1017-1040.
  • Powell, Jonathan vd. (2018). “Give them Toys? Military Allocations and Regime Stability in Transitional Democracies”. Democratization, C. 25, S. 7, s. 1153-1172.
  • Puell de la Villa, Fernando (2012). La Transición Militar. Madrid: Fundación TRANSICIÓN Española.
  • Sánchez-Cuenca, Ignacio (2009). “La Violencia Terrorista en la Transición Española a la Democracia”. Historia del Presente, C. 14, s. 9-24.
  • Serra, Narcís (2011). Demokratikleşme Sürecinde Ordu: Silahlı Kuvvetlerin Demokratik Reformu Üzerine Düşünceler. Çev: Şahika Tokel, İstanbul: İletişim.
  • Sudduth, Jun Koga (2017). “Coup Risk, Coup-proofing and Leader Survival”. Journal of Peace Research, C. 54, S. 1, s. 3-15.
  • Zaverucha, Jorge (1993). “The Degree of Military Political Autonomy during the Spanish, Argentine and Brazilian Transitions”. Journal of Latin American Studies, C. 25, S. 2, s. 283-299.

DEMOKRASİLERDE DARBE GEÇİRMEZLİĞE YAKINDAN BAKMAK: SİVİL-ASKER İLİŞKİLERİNDE İSPANYA ÖRNEĞİ

Yıl 2020, , 145 - 185, 31.01.2020
https://doi.org/10.21550/sosbilder.591754

Öz

Darbe geçirmezlik, demokratik rejimler ve
alternatiflerinin devamlılığını sağlamaya yönelik bir stratejiler bütünü olarak
tanımlanmaktadır. Demokratik sistemlerin de darbe riskiyle karşılaşabildikleri
savı kabul görse de, irdelenen önlemler çoğunlukla zayıf demokratik karnelere
sahip sistemlerin uygulayabilecekleri türdendir. Demokrasiye geçiş ve pekişme
dönemlerindeki darbe girişimleri ve bu girişimlerin tekrarının önünü almak için
atılan adımlar seyrek olarak mercek altına alınmaktadır. Çalışmanın başlıca
hedefi, demokratikleşen sistemlerde darbe geçirmezlik stratejilerinin izlerini
aramaktır. İspanya’nın serüveni, darbe girişimlerinden demokrasinin gelişimine
katkı yapacak dersler çıkarılabileceği ve tekrarlanma ihtimalinin önünün
alınabileceğine işaret etmektedir. Demokrasiye geçişte örnek teşkil ettiğine
inanılan İspanya’nın adımları, demokratik rejimin kalitesini zedelemeden
uygulanabilecek önlemlere ilişkin fikir vermektedir. Siyasal liberalleşme,
atamalarla kadro yapısını dönüştürme, yatıştırma, sınırlı cezalandırma,
birleştirerek yönetme yollarıyla darbe geçirmezlik hedeflenirken, uluslararası
ittifak arayışları süreçteki riskleri yönetmek için başvurulan yöntem olarak
öne çıkmaktadır. Temel bulgu, darbe geçirmezlik üzerine süregelen kuramsal
tartışmalardan ayrışacak şekilde, asgari cezalandırma ile tek çatı altında
toplamaya yönelik adımlarla demokratik pekişmenin güvence altına
alınabildiğidir.

Kaynakça

  • Acemoglu, Daron vd. (2010). “A Theory of Military Dictatorships”. American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, C. 2, S. 1, s. 1-42.
  • Agüero, Felipe (1988). “Democracia en España y Supremacia Civil”. REIS, C. 44, s. 23-50.
  • ____________ (1995). Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • Albrecht, Holger ve Ferdinand Eibl (2018). “How to Keep Officers in the Barracks: Causes, Agents, and Types of Military Coups”. International Studies Quarterly, C. 62, S. 2, s. 315-328.
  • Alpert, Michael (2010). “El Papel del Ejército (1931-1991)”. Los Ejércitos del Franquismo (1939-1975), Ed: Fernando Puell de la Villa ve Sonia Alda Mejías, Madrid: Instituto Universitario General Gutiérrez Mellado-UNED, s. 195-207.
  • Barahona de Brito, Alexandra ve Mario Sznajder (2010). “The Politics of the Past: the Southern Cone and Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective”. South European Society and Politics, C. 15, S. 3, s. 487-505.
  • Barany, Zoltan. (2011). “Comparing the Arab Revolts: The Role of the Military”. Journal of Democracy, C. 22, S. 4, s. 28-39.
  • _____________ (2013). “Armies and Revolutions”. Journal of Democracy, C. 24, S. 2, s. 62-76.
  • Barrios Ramos, Raquel (2002). “El Camino Hacia la Democracia en las Fuerzas Armadas: La Unión Militar Democrática”. Actas del III Simposio de Historia Actual, Ed: Carlos Navajas Zubeldía, Logroño: Gobierno de La Rioja, Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, s. 483-500.
  • Bausch, Andrew W. (2018). “Coup-Proofing and Military Inefficiencies: An Experiment”. International Interactions, C. 44, S. 1, s. 1-32.
  • Belkin, Aaron ve Evan Schofer (2003). “Toward a Structural Understanding of Coup Risk”. Journal of Conflict Resolution, C. 47, S. 5, s. 594-620.
  • Bell, Curtis (2016). “Coup d’État and Democracy”. Comparative Political Studies, C. 49, S. 9, s. 1-34.
  • Bermeo, Nancy (1994). “Sacrifice, Sequence, and Strength in Successful Dual Transitions: Lessons from Spain”. The Journal of Politics, C. 56, S. 3, s. 601-627.
  • Brown, Cameron S. vd. (2015). “Recouping after Coup-Proofing: Compromised Military Effectiveness and Strategic Substitution”. International Interactions, C. 42, S. 1, s. 1-30.
  • Castro Berrojo, Luis (2015). “Tres Versiones sobre el Golpe del 23-F…o Alguna Más”. Hispania Nova. Revista de Historia Contemporánea, C. 13, s. 294-307.
  • Colomer, Josep Maria (1995). Game Theory and the Transition to Democracy. Hants: Edward Elgar Publishing.
  • Croissant, Aurel vd. (2018). “Mass Protests and the Military”. Journal of Democracy, C. 29, S. 3, s. 141-155.
  • De Andrés Sanz, Jesús de Andrés (2001). “Quieto Todo el Mundo!- El 23-F y la Transición Española”. Historia y Política: Ideas, Procesos y Movimientos Sociales, C. 5, s. 55-88.
  • De Bruin, Erica (2017). “Preventing Coups d’état: How Counterbalancing Works”. Journal of Conflict Resolution, C. 62, S. 7, s. 1-26.
  • Degaut, Marcos (2017). “Out of the Barracks: The Role of the Military in Democratic Revolutions”. Armed Forces & Society, s. 1-23.
  • Finer, Samuel E. (1962). The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics. London: Pall Mall Press.
  • Galaup, Laura ve Carlos del Castillo (2018). “Defensa Ordena Abrir un Expediente a los cinco Militares en la Reserva que Firmaron el Manifiesto Franquista” eldiario.es. https://www.eldiario.es/sociedad/Ejercito-memoria_historica-Franco-militares-franquismo_0_816469363.html (Erişim Tarihi: 11.04.2019).
  • Giménez Martínez, Miguel Ángel (2014). “El Ejército de Franco: Un Gigante con Pies de Barro”. Passagens. Revista Internacional de História Política y Cultura Jurídica, C. 6, S. 3, s. 439-479.
  • Gómez Rosa, Fidel (2018). “Unión Militar Democrática: Balance de una Experiencia Histórica”. La Albolafia: Revista de Humanidades y Cultura, C. 14, s. 38-59.
  • Hooper, John (2006). The New Spaniards. London: Penguin Books.
  • Huntington, Samuel P. (1957). The Soldier and the State. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Javier Olivas, José (2013). “El Ejército, ¿Otra Institución en el Punto de Mira?” eldiario.es. http://www.eldiario.es/agendapublica/blog/ejercito-institucion-punto-mira_6_112398768.html (Erişim Tarihi: 23.03.2019).
  • Jiménez, José Luis R. (2018). “Antecedentes y Primeras Misiones en el Exterior de las Fuerzas Armadas”. La Albolafia: Revista de Humanidades y Cultura, C. 14, s. 134-155.
  • Kuehn, David (2017). “Midwives or Gravediggers of Democracy? The Military’s Impact on Democratic Development”. Democratization, C. 24, S. 5, s. 783-800.
  • León Solís, Fernando (2007). “23 F- Redemption or Derailment of Spanish Democracy?”. International Journal of Iberian Studies, C. 20, S. 3, s. 207-229.
  • Mena Aguado, José (2006). “Discurso del Teniente General José Mena Aguado en la Pascua Militar”, El Mundo.
  • https://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2006/01/06/espana/1136570580.html (Erişim Tarihi: 05.02.2019).
  • Monedero, Juan Carlos (2014). La Transición Contada a Nuestros Padres: Nocturno de la Democracia Española. Madrid: Catarata.
  • Muñoz Bolaños, Roberto (2010). “La Institución Militar en la Posguerra (1939-1945)”. Los Ejércitos del Franquismo (1939-1975), Ed: Fernando Puell de la Villa ve Sonia Alda Mejías, Madrid: Instituto Universitario General Gutiérrez Mellado-UNED, s. 15-54.
  • ____________________ (2013). “Las Fuerzas Armadas y la Legalización del PCE”. Rubrica Contemporanea, C. 2, S. 4, s. 101-120.
  • _____________________ (2014). “Un Análisis Incompleto de un Acontecimiento Excepcional: la Literatura Sobre el Golpe de Estado del 23-F (1981-2014)”. Historiografías, C. 9, s. 81-109.
  • _____________________ (2015). 23-F: Los Golpes de Estado. Madrid: Última Línea.
  • _____________________ (2018). “Militares y Civiles: Movimientos Involucionistas el el Proceso de Transición y Consolidación Democrática (1975-1986)”. La Albolafia: Revista de Humanidades y Cultura, C. 14, s. 134-155.
  • Navajas Zubeldía, Carlos (2014). “La Transición Militar, Una Transición Larga (1975-1989)”. Actas del IV Congreso Internacional de Historia de Nuestro Tiempo, Ed: Carlos Navajas Zubeldía ve D. Iturriaga Barco, Logroño: Univerisdad de La Rioja, s. 27-45.
  • One Earth Future Foundation Policy Brief (2016). “Why Democratization Does Not Solve the Coup Problem”, https://oefresearch.org/sites/default/files/documents/publications/democratization-coups.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 06.03.2019).
  • Özçer, Akın (2010). “İspanya’da 23-F Darbe Girişimi ve Askerin Demokratik Denetimi Süreci”. Türkiye Siyasetinde Ordunun Rolü: Asker-Sivil İlişkileri, Güvenlik Sektörü ve Sivil Denetim, İstanbul: Heinrich Böll Stiftung Derneği Türkiye Temsilciliği, s. 90-95.
  • Palacios, Jesús (2011). 23-F, El Rey y su Secreto. Madrid: Libros Libres.
  • Payne, Stanley G. (2017). En Defensa de España. Barcelona: Espasa.
  • Pilster, Ulrich ve Tobias Böhmelt (2015). “The Impact of Institutional Coup-Proofing on Coup Attempts and Coup Outcomes”. International Interactions, C. 41, S. 1, s. 158-182.
  • Pinilla Martín, Enrique (2006). “La Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica en España”. El Derecho a la Memoria, Ed: Felipe Gómez Isa, Bilbao: Giza Eskubideak Derechos Humanos, s. 529-548.
  • Powell, Charles (1996). Juan Carlos of Spain: Self-Made Monarch. Wiltshire: MacMillan Press.
  • Powell, Jonathan (2012). “Determinants of the Attempting and Outcome of Coups d’état”. Journal of Conflict Resolution, C. 56, S. 6, s. 1017-1040.
  • Powell, Jonathan vd. (2018). “Give them Toys? Military Allocations and Regime Stability in Transitional Democracies”. Democratization, C. 25, S. 7, s. 1153-1172.
  • Puell de la Villa, Fernando (2012). La Transición Militar. Madrid: Fundación TRANSICIÓN Española.
  • Sánchez-Cuenca, Ignacio (2009). “La Violencia Terrorista en la Transición Española a la Democracia”. Historia del Presente, C. 14, s. 9-24.
  • Serra, Narcís (2011). Demokratikleşme Sürecinde Ordu: Silahlı Kuvvetlerin Demokratik Reformu Üzerine Düşünceler. Çev: Şahika Tokel, İstanbul: İletişim.
  • Sudduth, Jun Koga (2017). “Coup Risk, Coup-proofing and Leader Survival”. Journal of Peace Research, C. 54, S. 1, s. 3-15.
  • Zaverucha, Jorge (1993). “The Degree of Military Political Autonomy during the Spanish, Argentine and Brazilian Transitions”. Journal of Latin American Studies, C. 25, S. 2, s. 283-299.
Toplam 53 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Siyaset Bilimi
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Rukiye Ebru İlter Akarçay 0000-0003-1358-7368

Yayımlanma Tarihi 31 Ocak 2020
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2020

Kaynak Göster

APA İlter Akarçay, R. E. (2020). DEMOKRASİLERDE DARBE GEÇİRMEZLİĞE YAKINDAN BAKMAK: SİVİL-ASKER İLİŞKİLERİNDE İSPANYA ÖRNEĞİ. Uludağ Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 21(38), 145-185. https://doi.org/10.21550/sosbilder.591754