Postural kontrol ve spor: Spor branşlarına yönelik postural sensör-motor stratejiler ve postural salınım

Öz

Günlük hayatta, herhangi biri ile konuşurken, sırada beklerken ya da iş yaşamımızda genellikle birkaç dakikadan daha uzun süre ayakta durmak zorunda kalırız. Bu gibi doğal duruşlar sırasında, vücut sürekli düşük genlikli, yavaş salınımlı ve tüm vücut hareketleri ile karakterize edilen postural değişimler göstermektedir. Bu değişimler özellikle sportif etkinliklerde önemlidir. Çünkü sportif etkinliklerde bir motor aktivitenin gerçekleştirilebilmesi, hem dışsal dengeyi (kaygan zemin üzerinde yürümek, ışık değişimi vb) hem de içsel dengeyi bozucu güçlere (kas stiffness’ı, kas iskelet yaralanmaları ve yorgunluk vb) karşı denge görevini sürdürmeyi gerektirmektedir. Bu görevin en az efor ile gerçekleştirilebilmesi için, devam eden duruş sırasında postural değişimler ve vücut salınımındaki artışa en etkili yanıtın verilmesi gerekmektedir. Bu yanıt ise sensör (somatosensör, görsel ve vestibular) ve motor sistemin oldukça kompleks bağlantısını gerektiren postural kontrol sisteminin devreye girmesi ile gerçekleşmektedir. Postural kontrol, dinamik sensör-motor sürecin etkileşimine dayanan kompleks motor bir beceridir ve denge fonksiyonu verilen görev doğrultusunda postural kontrol altındaki tüm sistemlerin etkili kullanımını gerektirmektedir. Bu nedenle postural stabilitenin sportif performans açısından rolünün belirlenmesine yönelik birçok araştırmanın yürütüldüğü görülmektedir. Bu araştırmalar sonucu dinamik ve statik koşullar altında postural stabilitenin değerlendirilebilmesi için çeşitli metotlar ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Bu metotlar kullanılarak her bir spor branşının gereklilikleri ile ilişkili farklı postural sensör-motor stratejiler geliştirilmiştir. Bu çalışma; farklı spor branşlarına özgü motor görevlerin gerçekleştirilmesi sırasında ortaya çıkan postural salınıma ilişkin araştırmaları incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda spor branşındaki uzmanlığın postural salınım üzerinde nasıl bir etkiye sahip olduğuna dair spor branşları ile ilgili araştırmalara yer verilecektir. Araştırma destekli bilgi sentezini içeren bu çalışmanın sportif performansın ön koşullarından biri olan postural kontrol sisteminin anlaşılmasına katkı sağlayacağı düşünülmektedir

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Denge, Sensör-Motor Sistem, Postür, Postural Kontrol, Postural Salınım, Spor Branşı

POSTURAL CONTROL AND SPORT: POSTURAL SENSOR MOTOR STRATEGIES AND POSTURAL SWAY IN DIFFERENT SPORT BRANCHES

Öz

We have to stand more than couple of minutes during a conversation or waiting for a bus in our daily life. During these natural stances, our body shows some changes characterized with global body movements, low, continuous and slow amplitude sways. These changes are important during sportive activities. Because accomplishment of sports activities needs to endure both intrinsic (muscle stiffness, muscle skeletal injuries and fatigue) and extrinsic (walking on slippery floor, light changes) perturbations. For realization of a given task with minimum effort, the most effective response should be given during continuous postural changes and the increase in body sway. This response is accomplished by utilization of postural control systems, which needs to combine the complex connection of both sensory (somatosensory, visual and vestibular) and motor systems. Postural control is complex motor skill, which needs interaction of sensory motor processes. Balance function needs effective usage of the whole system under postural control. Therefore, its role in performance and health has been a matter of interest among conditioning specialists and researchers for many years. There have been some studies concetrating on postural stability under dynamic and static conditions. These studies have created some measurement methods and these methods have been using to develop postural sensorimotor strategies for each individual sport branches. The purpose of the current review is to evaluate postural sway during accomplishment of sport specific motor tasks. So, a review will be conducted on current literature related with sport specific postural sway patterns. The current review is considered to provide a synthesis of the research-based knowledge on postural sway that has been one of the basics of sport performance

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Balance, Sensory-Motor System, Posture, Postural Control, Postural Sway, Sport Branch.

Kaynakça

1. Herrington, L., & Davies, R. The influence of Pilates training on the ability to contract the Transversus Abdominis muscle in asymptomatic individuals. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 9(1), 52-57, 2005.
2. Okubo J, Watanabe I, Takeya T, Baron JB. Influence of foot position and visual field condition in the examination of equilibrium function and sway of centre of gravity in normal persons. Aggressologie 20:127–132, 1979.
3. Kendall, F. P., & McCreary, E. K. Posture and pain (3 ed.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1993.
4. Ward, R. C. Foundations for osteopathic medicine (2 ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2003.
5. Hrysomallix, C. & Goodman, C. A review of resistance exercise and posture realignment. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 15(3), 385-390, 2001.
6. Hughes, M.A.; Schenkman, M.L.; Chandler, J.M. & Studenski, S.A. Postural responses to platform perturbation: kinematics and electromyography. Clinical Biomechanics, 10 (6): 318-322, 1995.
7. Bloem, B.R.; Allum, J.H.; Carpenter, M.G.; Honegger, F. Is lower leg proprioception essential for triggering human automatic postural responses? Experimental Brain Research, 130 (3): 375-391, 2002 (From PubMed, Abstract No. 10706436).
8. Yaggie, J.A. & McGregor, S.J. Effects of isokinetic ankle fatigue on the maintenance of balance and postural limits. Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 83(2):224-8, 2002 (From PubMed, Abstract No. 11833026).

9. Massion, J. Postural control system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 4(6), 877-887, 1994.
10. Mergner T., Maurer, C. and Peterka, R.J. A multisensory posture control model of human upright stance. C. Prablanc, D. Pélisson and Y. Rossetti (Eds.) Progress in Brain Research, Vol. 142, 189-201, 2003.
11. Deliagina T.G, Zelenin P.V, Beloozerova I.N & Orlovsky GN . Physiol Behav 92, 148–154, 2007.
12. Winter, D. A. Human balance and posture control during standing and walking. Gait & Posture, 3(1), 193-214, 1995.
13. Alexander, K. M., & La Pier, T. L. Differences in static balance and weight distribution between normal subjects and subjects with chronic unilateral low back pain. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 28(6), 378-383, 1998
14. Kejonen, P. Body movements during postural stabilization. Unpublished master‟s thesis, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland, 2002.
15. Horak FB, Wrisley DM, Frank J. The Balance Evaluation Systems Test (BESTest) to differentiate balance deficits. Phys Ther. 89:484–498, 2009.
16. Emery CA, Cassidy JD, Klassen TP, et al. Development of a clinical static and dynamic standing balance measurement tool appropriate for use in adolescents. Phys Ther.85:502–514, 2005.
17. Harringe, M., Halvorsen, K., Renstrom, P., & Werner, S. Postural control measured as the center of pressure excursion in young female gymnasts with low back pain or lower extremity injury. Gait & Posture, 28(1), 38-45, 2008.
18. Radebold, A., Cholewicki, J., Polzhofer, G. K., & Greene, H. S. Impaired postural control of the lumbar spine is associated with delayed muscle response times in patients with chronic idiopathic low back pain. Spine Journal, 26(7), 724-730, 2001.
19. Sucan S, Aktif Futbol Oyuncularının Çeşitli Denge Parametrelerinin Değerlendirilmesi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Erciyes Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Kayseri, 2005.
20. Guskiewicz, K.M., & Perrin, D.H. Research and clinical applications of assessing balance. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 5:45-63, 1996.
21. Enbom H. Vestibular and somatosensory contribution to postural control. Thesis, University of Lund. Lund, 1990.
22. Hassan, B S, Mockett, S., Doherty M. Static postural sway, proprioception, and maximal voluntary quadriceps contraction in patients with knee osteoarthritis and normal control subjects. Ann Rheum Dis., 60:612–618, 2001.
23. Griffin, D.M. Primate Motor Cortex: Individual and Ensemble Neuron-Muscle Output Relationships, University of Kansas, 2000.
24. Latash ML. Postural Control. Vision. In Human Kinetics (eds.) Neurophysiological Basis of Movement. Champaign. Illinois. USA. pp.163-194, 1998.
25. Lephart, S.M., Freddie, H. Proprioception and Neuromuscular Control in Joint Stability, Copyright©Human Kinetics, p.23-28, 2000.
26. Klonoff, P., L. Costa, and W. Snow. Predictors and indicators of quality of life in patientswith closed-head injury. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 8:469-485, 1986.
27. Armutlu K, Sade A. Denge ve koordinasyondan sorumlu yapılar. Fizyoterapi Rehabilitasyon Dergisi; 7(5): 104-109, 1994.
28. Füzün S, Tüzün Ç. Motor fonksiyonun nörofizyolojisi. Tıbbi Rehabilitasyon. (Ed. Oğuz H).Nobel Tıp Kitapları, İstanbul, s:43-66, 1995.
29. Bronstein AM. Suppression of visually evoked postural responses. Exp Brain Res 63: 665–658, 1986.
30. Dijkstra TMH, Sch¨Oner G, and Gıelen CCAM. Temporal stability of the action-perception cycle for postural control in a moving visual environment. Exp Brain Res 97: 477–486, 1994.
31. Van Asten,. WNJC, Giele,n CCAM., and Denier Van Der Gon JJ. Postural adjustments induced by simulated motion of differently structured environments. Exp Brain Res 73: 371–383, 1988.
32. Allum, JHJ. Organization of stabilizing reflex responses in tibialis anterior muscles following ankle flexion perturbations of standing man. Brain Res 264: 297–301, 1983.
33. Jeka JJ, Sch¨Oner G, Dijkstra T, Ribeiro P, and Lackner JR. Coupling of fingertip somatosensory information to head and body sway. Exp Brain Res 113: 475–483, 1997.
34. Johansson R, Magnusson M, and Akesson M. Identification of human postural dynamics. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 35: 858–869, 1988.
35. Kavounoudıas A, Gilhodes JC, Roll R, and Roll JP. From balance regulation to body orientation: two goals for muscle proprioceptive information processing? Exp Brain Res 124: 80–88, 1999.
36. Johansson R, Magnusson M, and Fransson PA. Galvanic vestibular stimulation for analysis of postural adaptation and stability. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 42: 282–292, 1995.
37. Era P, Schroll M, Ytting H, Gause-Nilsson I, Heikkinen E & Steen B. Postural balance and its sensory – motor correlates in 75-year- old men and women: A cross-national comparative study. J Gerontol: Medical Sciences 51A: M53-M63, 1996.
38. Johansson R & Magnusson M. Human postural dynamics. Biomed Eng 18: 413-437, 1991.
39. Nashner, L. Practical biomechanics and physiology of balance. In Handbook of BalanceFunction and Testing, G. Jacobson, C. Newman, and J. Kartush (Eds.). St. Louis, MO:Mosby Year Book, pp. 261-279, 1993.
40. Prochazka A & Wand P. Tendon organ discharge during voluntary movements in cats. J Physiol (Lond) 303: 385-390, 1980.
41. Rosenbaum, D. A. Human motor control, San Diego, CA: Academic Press, ch. 4, 1991.
42. Visser J.E. and Bloem, B.R. Role of the basal ganglia in balance control. Neural Plasticity. Volume 12, No.2-3, 2005.
43. Bem T, Go´rska T, Majczynski H, Zmyslowski W. Different patterns of fore-hindlimb coordination during overground locomotion in cats with ventral and lateral spinal lesions. Exp Brain Res 104: 70–80, 1995.
44. Woollacott MH.& Shumway-Cook A. Changes in posture control across the life span- A systems approach. Phys Ther 70: 799-807, 1990.
45. Brustein E, Rossignol S. Recovery of locomotion after ventral and ventrolateral spinal lesions in the cat. I. Deficits and adaptive mechanisms. J Neurophysiol 80: 1245–1267, 1998.
46. Chen YS, Zhou S. Soleus H-reflex and its relation to static postural control. Gait Posture, 33(2):169-78, 2011.
47. Spirduso WW. Physical Dimensions of Aging. Human Kinetics. Champaign. Illinois. USA, 1995.
48. Balter SGT, Stokroos RJ, Akkermans E, Kingma H. Habituation to galvanic vestibular stimulation for analysis of postural control abilities in gymnasts. Neurosci Lett. 366:71–75, 2004.
49. Ashton-Miller JA, Wojtys EM, Huston LJ, Fry-Welch D. Can proprioception really be improved by exercises? Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 9:128–136, 2001.
50. Ripoll, H., Papin, J., Guezennec, J., Verdy, J., and Philip, M. Analysis of visual scanning patterns of pistol performers, Journal of Sport Sciences, 3, 93-101, 1985.
51. Aalto, H.,& Pyykko, I., & Ilmarinen, R., et.al. Postural stability in shooters. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec. 52, 232-238, 1990.
52. Mononen K., Konttinen N., Viitasalo J., Era P. Relationships between postural balance, rifle stability, and shooting accuracy among novice rifle shooters. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 17:180–185, 2007.
53. Paillard, T., Noe, F., Riviere, T., Marion, V., Montoya, R., Dupui, P. Postural Performance and Strategy in the Unipedal Stance of Soccer Players at Different Levels of Competition. Journal of Athletic Training. 41(2):172–176, 2006.
54. Hayashi R, Miyake A, Watanabe S. The functional role of sensory inputs from the foot: stabilizing human standing posture during voluntary and vibrationinduced body sway. Neurosci Res. 5:203–13, 1998.
55. Kuo, A.D., Speers, R.A., Peterka, R.J., Horak, F.B. Effect of altered sensory conditions on multivariate descriptors of human postural sway. Experimental Brain Research 122, 185-195, 1998.
56. Crotts D, Thompson B, Nahom M, et al. Balance abilities of Professional dancers on select balance tests. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther, 23:12–7, 1996.
57. Lephart SM, Giraldo JL, Borsa PA. Knee joint proprioception: a comparison between female intercollegiate gymnasts and controls. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 4:121–4, 1996.
58. Perrin PhP, Schneider D, Deviterne D, Perrot C, Constantinescu L. Training improves the adaptation to changing visual conditions in maintaining human postural control in a test of sinusoidal oscillation of the support. Neurosci Lett, 245:155–8, 1998.
59. Perrin, D. Deviterne, F. Hugel, C. Perrot, Judo, better than dance, develops sensorimotor adaptabilities involved in balance control, Gait Posture 15: 187–194, 2002.
60. Vuillerme, N. Danion, F. Marin, L. Boyadjian, A. Prieur, J.M. Weise, I. Nougier, V. The effect of expertise in gymnastics on postural control, Neurosci. Lett. 303: 83–86, 2001.
61. Williams LR, Walmsley A. Response timing and muscular coordination in fencing: a comparison of elite and novice fencers. J Sci Med Sport, 3: 460–75, 2000.
62. Yiou E, Do MC. In a complex sequential movement, what component of the motor program is improved with intensive practice, sequence timing or ensemble motor learning? Exp Brain Res.137:197–204, 2001.
63. Lion A, Gauchard GC, Deviterne D, Perrin PhP. Differentiated influence of off-road and on-road cycling practice on balance control and the related-neurosensory organization. J Electromyogr Kinesio. 19:623–30, 2009.
64. Freitas, S.M., Wieczorek, S.A., Marchetti, P.H., Duarte, M. Agerelated changes in human postural control of prolonged standing. Gait Posture 22, 322–330, 2005.
65. Konttinen N, Landers DM, Lyytinen H. Aiming routines and their electrocortical concomitants among competitive rifle shooters. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 10 (3): 169-177, 2000.
66. Paulus W, Straube A, Krafcyzk S, Brandt T. Differential effects of retinal target displacement, changing size and changing disparity in the control of anterior:posterior and lateral body sway. Exp Brain Res. 78:243–52, 1989.
67. Niinimaa, V., &McAvoy, T. Influence of exercise on body sway in the standing rifle shooting position. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 8, 30–33, 1983.
68. Era P, Konttinen N, Mehto P, Saarela P, Lyytinen H. Postural stability and skilled performance: a study on top-level and naive rifle shooters. J Biomech, 29:301–6, 1996.
69. Ball, K. A., Best, R. J., & Wrigley, T. V. Body sway, aim point fluctuation and performance in rifle shooters: Inter- and intra-individual analysis. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21, 559–566, 2003.
70. Zemkova, E. Postural Sway Response to Exercise. Copyright © by Erika Zemkova. ISBN 978-80-7326-188-, 2010.
71. Perrin, P. P., & Perrin, C.A., & Courant, P. et al. Posture in basketball players. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Belg. 45, 341-347, 1991.
72. Zemkova, E., Macura, P. Stabilita postoja pri opakovanej strel’be v basketbale. Zbornik vedeckych prac Karedry hier FTVSUK, 11:37-43, 2008.
73. Bringoux L, Marin V, Nougier V, Barraud PA, Raphel C. Effects of gymnastics expertise on the perception of body orientation in the pitch dimension. J Vestib Res. 10:251–258, 2000.
74. Marin, L., Bardy, B. G., & Bootsma, R. J. Level of gymnastic skill as an intrinsic constraint on postural coordination. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17, 615–626, 1999.
75. Vuillerme, N., Danion, F., Marin, L., Boyadjian, A., Prieur, J.M., Weise, I., Nougier, V. The effect of expertise in gymnastics on postural control, Neurosci. Lett. 303: 83–86, 2001.
76. Vuillerme, N., Nougier, V. Attentional demand for regulating postural sway: the effect of expertise in gymnastics. Brain Research Bulletin 63: 161–165, 2004.
77. Golomer E, Dupui P, Sereni P, Monod H. The contribution of vision in dynamic spontaneous sways of male classical dancers according to student or professional level. J Physiol Paris. 93(3):233-237,1999b.
78. Golomer E, Cremieux J, Dupui P, Isableu B, Ohlmann T. Visual contribution to self-induced body sway frequencies and visual perception of male professional dancers. Neurosci Lett. 267(3): 189-192, 1999a.
79. Schmit JM, Regis DI, Riley MA. Dynamic patterns of postural sway in ballet dancers and track athletes. Exp Brain Res. 163(3): 370-378, 2005.
80. Soderman K, Werner S, Pietila T, Engstrom B, Alfredson H. Balance board training: prevention of traumatic injuries of the lower extremities in female soccer players? A prospective randomized intervention study. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 8:356– 363, 2000.
81. Gauffin H, Tropp H, Odenrick P. Effect of ankle disk training on postural control in patients with functional instability of the ankle joint. Int J Sports Med. 2:141–144, 1998.
82. Pintsaar A, Brynhildsen J, Tropp H. Postural corrections after standardised perturbations of single limb stance: effect of training and orthotic devices in patients with ankle instability. Br J Sports Med. 30:151–155, 1996.
83. Papageorgiou A., Spitzley W., Volleyball: A Handbook for Coaches and Players. Meyer & Meyer Sport, 2002.
84. Michał Kuczyński, Zbigniew Rektor, Dorota Borzucka. Postural Control In Quıet Stance In The Second League Male Volleyball Players. Human Movement, 10 (1), 12-15, 2009.
85. Wikstrom, E.A., Tillman, M.D., Smith, A.N., & Borsa, P.A. A new force-plate technology measure of dynamic postural stability: The dynamic postural stability index. Journal of Athletic Training, 40, 305-309, 2005.
86. Shumway-Cook A, Horak F. Assessing the influence of sensory interaction on balance. Phys Ther. 66:1548–1550, 1986.
87. Nashner L. Adaptation of human movement to altered environments. Trends Neurosci 5:358–361, 1982.
88. Sucan, S., Yılmaz, A., Can, Y., Süer, C. Aktif Futbol Oyuncularının Çeşitli Denge Parametrelerinin Değerlendirilmesi “The Different Balance Parameters Evaluation of the Active Soccer Players”. Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi (Journal of Health Sciences) 14(1) 36-42, 2005.