Bir Literatür İncelemesi: XIX. Yüzyılda Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ve Aşiretler İlişkisi

Öz

XIX. yüzyıl Osmanlı merkezi yönetimi ve aşiretler arasındaki ilişkiye odaklanan oldukça zengin bir literatür vardır. Bu makalede, alanın öne çıkan çalışmalarının bir özetini yapmayı amaçlıyorum. Aşiret grupları Osmanlı merkezi yönetimi ile olan ilişkileri içerisinde farklı şekillerde ele alınmışlardır. Bu makalede değineceğim çalışmaları üç başlık altında inceleyeceğim. Araştırmacıların önemli bir bölümü XIX. Yüzyıl Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ve aşiretler arasındaki ilişkiyi müzakere ve ortaklık argümanı çerçevesinde ele almışlardır. Bu çalışmalarda aşiretler, Osmanlı merkezi hükümeti ile karşılıklı bir güç ilişkisi içinde olan aktif özneler olarak öne çıkmaktadır. Araştırmacıların dikkate değer bir bölümü II. Abdülhamid yönetiminin (1876-1908) imparatorluğun tüm tebaasını ayrılıkçı hareketlere karşı birleştirmeyi amaçlayan politikasında aşiretlerin rolüne önem vermişlerdir. İkinci olarak aşiretleri Hamidiye döneminin önemli aktörleri olarak ele alan çalışmalara odaklanacağım. Son bölümde ise, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu`nda aşiretleri kimlik siyasetinin bir parçası olarak ele alan önemli çalışmalara değineceğim. Bu bölümde, aşiretlerin 19. yüzyılın sonlarında etnik kimlikleri oluşturan karmaşık ve karşılıklı ilişkilerin bir parçası olarak öne çıktığı görülecektir. Bu makale, literatürdeki çalışmalar aracılığıyla, 19. yüzyılda Osmanlı merkezi yönetimi ile aşiretler arasındaki ilişkinin bir analizini sunmayı amaçlamaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Aşiretler
• Kürt Aşiretleri
• Aşiret liderleri
• 19. yüzyıl Osmanlı İmparatorluğu
• II. Abdülhamid

A Literature Review: The Relationship Between the Ottoman Empire and Tribes in the XIXth Century

Öz

There is extensive literature on the relationship between the Ottoman central government and tribes in the XIX. century Ottoman Empire. In this article, I aim to make a summary of significant studies in the literature. Tribal groups are taken to hand in different roles within their relationship with the Ottoman central government. I will examine selected works under three headings. In the first group of these studies, tribes are focused on as the partners of the central Ottoman government. A significant group of scholars has addressed the issue of tribes in the second half of the XIXth century under the partnership and negotiation argument. In these studies, tribes have been taken to hand as active agents that were in the mutual power relations with the Ottoman central government. Some scholars have given importance to the role of tribes in the policy of Abdulhamid II which aim to unify all other subjects of the empire against the separatist movements. Secondly, I will focus on the studies that examine the tribal groups as the significant actors of the Hamidian era. Lastly, I will reveal the studies that consider the tribes to the part of identity politics in the Ottoman Empire. It will be seen that tribes are addressed as a part of complex mutual relations that formed ethnic identities in the late 19th century. Through the studies in the literature, this paper aims to provide an analysis of the relationship between the Ottoman central government and tribes in the 19th century.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Abdulhamid II
• 19th Century Ottoman Empire
• Tribes
• Abdulhamid II
• Kurdish tribes
• Tribal leaders.
• 19. yüzyıl Osmanlı İmparatorluğu
• II. Abdülhamid

Kaynakça

1. Akarlı, Engin. “Abdulhamid II`s Attempt to Integrate Arabs into the Ottoman System.” In Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period: Political, Social, and Economic Transformation edited by David Kushner. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1986. 74-93.
2. Alon, Yoav. “Tribalism in the Middle East: A Useful Prism for Understanding the Region.” In International Journal of Middle East Studies. 53. no 3 (2021): 477-481. Amara, Ahmad. "Governing Property: The Politics of Ottoman Land Law and State-Making in Southern Palestine, 1850-1917." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, New York University, 2016.
3. Ateş, Sabri. The Ottoman Iranian Borderland: Making a Boundary 1843-1914. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Avcı, Yasemin. “The Application of Tanzimat in the Desert: The Bedouins and the Creation of a New Town in Southern Palestine (1860–1914).” In Middle Eastern Studies. 45. no 6 (2009): 969-983.
4. Aydın, Suavi and Oktay Özel, “Power Relations Between Tribe and State in Ottoman Eastern Anatolia.” In Bulgarian Historical Review. 3. no 4 (2006): 51-67.
5. Aydın, Suavi, Kudret Emiroğlu, Oktay Özel, and Süha Ünsal. Mardin: Aşiret, Cemaat, Devlet, İstanbul: Türkiye Ekonomik ve Toplumsal Tarih Vakfı, 2000.
6. Bayraktar, Uğur. “Reconsidering Local versus Central: Empire, Notables, and Employment in Ottoman Albania and Kurdistan, 1835–1878.” In International Journal of Middle East Studies. (2020): 685-701.
7. Bayraktar, Uğur. “Tuz, Aşiret, Devlet: Siirt`te Tekelin Oluşumu 1861-1181.” In Tarih ve Coğrafya Araştırmaları Dergisi. no 2. (2021): 101-130.
8. Bektaş, Erhan. "The "Tanzimat State" in the Ottoman Iraq: Tribes, Ideology/Shiism and Taxation 1830-1910." Unpublished MA Thesis, Boğaziçi University, 2015. Bruinessen, Martin Van. “Kürt Aşiretlerinin Muhtelif Tezahürleri.” In Aktör, Müttefik, Şaki: Kürt Aşiretleri, edited by Tuncay Sur and Yalçın Çakmak. İstanbul: İletişim, 2022, 13-21.

9. Çetinsaya, Gökhan. Ottoman Administration of Iraq 1890-1908. London; New York: Routledge, 2006.
10. Ceylan, Ebubekir. “Carrot or Stick? Ottoman Tribal Policy in Baghdad, 1831–1876.” In International Journal of Contemporary Iraqi Studies. 3. no 2 (2009): 169-186.
11. Çiçek, Talha. Negotiating Empire in the Middle East: Ottomans and Arab Nomads in the Modern Era, 1840-1914. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021.
12. Cora, Tolga, Ali Sipahi, and Dzovinar Derderian. “Introduction: Ottoman Historiography`s Black Hole.” In The Ottoman East in the Nineteenth Century: Societies, Identities, and Politics, edited by Yaşar Tolga Cora, Ali Sipahi, Dzovinar Derderian. London: I.B. Tauris, 2016, 1-19.
13. Derderian, Dzovinar. “Shaping Subjectivities and Contesting Power through the Image of Kurds.” In The Ottoman East in the Nineteenth Century: Societies, Identities, and Politics, edited by Yaşar Tolga Cora, Ali Sipahi, Dzovinar Derderian. London: I.B. Tauris, 2016, 91-109.
14. Deringil, Selim. ““They Live in a State of Nomadism and Savagery": The Late Ottoman Empire and the Post-Colonial Debate,”” In Comparative Studies in Society and History. 45. no 2 (2003): 311-342.
15. Duguid, Stephen. “The Politics of Unity: The Hamidian Policy in Eastern Anatolia.” In Middle Eastern Studies. 9. no 2 (1973): 139-155.
16. Duman Koç, Gülseren. “A Negotiation of the Ottoman Power during the Age of Reforms in the Ottoman Empire: Notables, Tribes, and State in Muş (1820-1840).” In Middle Eastern Studies. 57. no 2 (2021): 209-226.
17. Ekınci, Mehmet Rezan Ekinci. “19. ve 20. Yüzyıllarda Milli/Milan Aşireti.” In Kürt Aşiretleri, edited by Tuncay Sur and Yalçın Çakmak. İstanbul: İletişim, 2022. 217-241. Eppel, Michael. “The Demise of the Kurdish Emirates: The Impact of Ottoman Reforms and International Relations on Kurdistan during the First Half of the Nineteenth Century.” In Middle Eastern Studies. 44. no 2 (2008): 237-258.
18. Gölbaşı, Edip. "Devil Worshippers’ Encounter the State: ‘Heterodox’ Identities, State Building, and the Politics of Imperial Integration."" The Ottoman East in the Nineteenth Century: Societies, Identities, and Politics, edited by Yaşar Tolga Cora, Ali Sipahi, Dzovinar Derderian. London: I.B. Tauris, 2016. 133-159.
19. Güler, Mustafa. “Ortadoğu Jeopolitiğinde Aşiret Yapıları (Milli Aşiretleri Konfederasyonu Örneği).” Unpublished MA Thesis, Çanakkale 18 Mart Üniversitesi, 2019.
20. Halaçoğlu, Yusuf. XVIII. yüzyılda Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun İskân Siyaseti ve Aşiretlerin Yerleştirilmesi. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, 2014.
21. Hourani, Albert. “Conclusion: Tribes and States in Islamic History.” In Tribes and State Formations in the Middle East, edited by Philip Khoury and Josep Kostiner. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990, 303-313.
22. Kark, Ruth and Seth Frantzman, “Empire, State and the Bedouin of the Middle East, Past and Present: A Comparative Study of Land and Settlement Policies.” In Middle Eastern Studies. 48. no 4 (2012): 487-510.
23. Kasaba, Reşat. A Moveable Empire: Ottoman Nomads, Migrants, and Refugees. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2009.
24. Khaldun, Ibn. The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History. translated from Arabic by Franz Rosenthal. London: Routledge & K. Paul, 1958.
25. Khoury, Philip S., and Josep Kostiner, "Introduction: Tribes and Complexities of State Formation in the Middle East." In Tribes and State Formations in the Middle East, edited by Philip Khoury and Josep Kostiner. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990, 1-25.
26. Klein, Janet. “State, Tribe, Dynasty, and the Contest over Diyarbekir at the Turn of the 20th Century.” In Social Relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir 1870-1915, edited by Joost Jongerden and Jelle Verheij. Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2012, 147-178.
27. Klein, Janet. The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone. Stanford; California: Stanford University Press, 2011.
28. Köksal, Yonca. “Coercion and Mediation: Centralization and Settlement of Tribes in the Ottoman Empire.” In Middle Eastern Studies. 42. no 3. (2006): 469-491.
29. Nora Elizabeth “Making Tribes in the Late Ottoman Empire.” In International Journal of Middle East Studies. 53. no 3 (2021): 482-487.
30. Orhonlu, Cengiz. Osmanlı İmparatorluğu`nda Aşiretlerin İskanı. İstanbul: Eren Yayıncılık, 1987.
31. Özbek, Nadir. “The Politics of Taxation and the Armenian Question during the Late Ottoman Empire 1876-1908.” In Comparative Studies in Society and History. 54. no 4 (2012): 770-797.
32. Özoğlu, Hakan. “State-Tribe Relations: Kurdish Tribalism in the 16th and 17th Century Ottoman Empire.” In British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 23. no 1 (1996): 5-27.
33. Özoğlu, Hakan. Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State: Evolving Identities, Competing Loyalties, and Shifting Boundaries. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004.
34. Pehlivan, Zozan. "Abandoned Villages in Diyarbekir Province at the End of the ‘Little Ice Age, 1800–50." In The Ottoman East in the Nineteenth Century: Societies, Identities, and Politics. edited by Yaşar Tolga Cora, Ali Sipahi, Dzovinar Derderian. London: I.B. Tauris, 2016. 223-247.
35. Rogan, Eugene. Frontiers of the State in the Late Ottoman Empire: Transjordan 1850-1921. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
36. Sykes, Mark. “The Kurdish Tribes of the Ottoman Empire.” In The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. vol 38. 1908. 451-486.
37. Tapper, Richard. “Anthropologists, Historians, and Tribespeople on Tribe and State Formation in the Middle East.” in Tribes and State Formations in the Middle East, edited by Philip Khoury and Josep Kostiner. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990, 48-74.
38. The Ottoman East in the Nineteenth Century: Societies, Identities, and Politics, edited by Yaşar Tolga Cora, Ali Sipahi, Dzovinar Derderian. London: I.B. Tauris, 2016.
39. Tikici, Naci. XIX. Yüzyılın İlk Yarısında Aşiret-Devlet İlişkisi: Millili Aşireti Örneği. Unpublished MA Thesis, Marmara University, 2010.
40. Ulugana, Sedat. ““Şiddet Yüzyılı” İçinde Dört Sınırdaş Aşiret: Hesenan, Cibran, Pencînaran ve Xweytî” (1837-1937)”” in Kürt Aşiretleri, edited by Tuncay Sur and Yalçın Çakmak. İstanbul: İletişim, 2022. 317-351.
41. Yapıştıran, Cihan. “Tanzimat Sonrası Devlet-Aşiret İlişkisinde Ekonomik Motivasyonun Etkileri: (Milli Aşireti 1839-1914).” Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Marmara University, 2020.
42. Yaşar Göymen, Sema. “Nestorians, Kurds, and the State: The Struggle to Survive in the Frontier in the Late Ottoman Period, 1839-1908.” Unpublished MA Thesis, Boğaziçi University, 2015.