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Binding Power of Lead: Magical and Amuletic Uses of Lead in Late Antique and Byzantine Periods

Yıl 2022, , 199 - 224, 31.12.2022
https://doi.org/10.54930/TARE.2022.6537

Öz

This study poses a specific question for a particular usage of lead in the context of magic: Was lead used in the production of Middle Byzantine amulets called hystera due to the unique apotropaic and magical qualities of the material? In order to understand the background of lead in supernatural contexts, this paper begins with a brief examination of the usage of lead from the Classical period to Late Antiquity. Lead was used across a wide range of areas from construction to medicine, due to its accessibility and malleability. In addition to its natural properties, material evidence including lead curse tablets, effigies, and coffins demonstrate the use of lead in contexts of dark magic and the underworld. Correspondingly, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine written sources refer to the deadly and malevolent nature of lead as a metal. Based on this evidence, I propose that lead was perceived as a material with supernatural power that had the ability to manipulate and bind living beings and evil spirits, contributing to the widespread production of lead hystera amulets in the Middle Byzantine period.

Kaynakça

  • Aretaues. The Extant Works of Aretaeus, the Cappadocian. Edited by Francis Adams. Boston: Milford House, 1972.
  • Audollent, Auguste Marie Henri. Defixionum tabellae. Paris: Fontemoing, 1904.
  • Betz, Hans Dieter. The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation, including the Demotic Spells. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
  • Plato. Timaeus, Critias, Cleitophon, Menexenus, Epistles. Translated by Robert G. Bury. The Loeb Classical Library 234. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1929.
  • Hippocrates. Diseases of Women 1–2. Edited and translated by Paul Potter. The Loeb Classical Library 538. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018.
  • Bedjan, Paul. The Life of Saint Simeon Stylites: A Translation of the Syriac Text in Bedjan’s Acta martyrum et Sanctorum. Translated by Frederick Lent. Christian Roman Empire Series 7. Merchantville: Evolution Publishing, 2008.
  • Nicander. The Poems and Poetical Fragments. Edited by A. S. F. Gow and A. F. Scholfield. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953.
  • Origen. Contra Celsum. Translated by Henry Chadwick. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980.
  • Pliny. Natural History. Translated by H. Rackham and W. H. S. Jones. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1949.
  • Rosenqvist, Jan Olof. The Life of St. Irene, Abbess of Chrysobalanton: A Critical Edition with Introduction, Translation, Notes and Indices. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1986.
  • Van den Ven, Paul. La vie ancienne de S. Syméon Stylite le Jeune (521–592). Brussels: Société des Bollandistes, 1962.
  • Wünsch, Richard. Defixionum tabellae Atticae. Berlin: Georgium Reimerum, 1897.
  • Altmann, Walter. Die römischen Grabaltäre der Kaiserzeit. Berlin: Weidmann, 1905.
  • Ardaillon, Édouard. Les mines du Laurion dans l’antiquité. Paris: Thorin et fils, 1897.
  • Aubert, Jean-Jacques. “Threatened Wombs: Aspects of Ancient Uterine Magic.” Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 30, no. 3 (1989): 421–49.
  • Avi-Yonah, M. “Three Lead Coffins from Palestine.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies 50, no. 2 (1930): 300–12.
  • ———. “Lead Coffins from Palestine.” Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine 4 (1935): 87–99.
  • Aviam, Mordechai and Dina Shalem. “A Decorated Fragment of a Tyrian Lead Coffin from a Cemetery at Akhziv.” Israel Exploration Journal 64, no. 2 (2014): 208–11.
  • Baldwin, Barry. “Michael Psellus on the Properties of Stones.” Byzantinoslavica 56 (1995): 397–405.
  • Barb, Alphons Augustinus. “Diva Matrix.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 16 (1953): 193–238.
  • ———. “Antaura. The Mermaid and the Devil’s Grandmother: A Lecture.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 29 (1966): 1–23.
  • Bel, Nicolas, Cécile Giroire, Florence Gombert-Meurice, and Marie-Hélène Rutschowscaya. L’Orient romain et byzantin au Louvre. Arles: Actes sud, 2012.
  • Besnier, M. “Le commerce du plomb à l’époque romaine d’après les lingots estampillés.” Revue Archéologique 12 (1920): 211–44.
  • Blake, Robert P. “The Circulation of Silver in the Moslem East Down to the Mongol Epoch.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 2, no. 3/4 (1937): 291–328.
  • Boulakia, Jean David C. “Lead in the Roman World.” American Journal of Archaeology 76, no. 2 (1972): 139–44.
  • Bouras, Laskarina, Alexandra Petrides and Popi Tsakirakis. The Griffin through the Ages. Athens: Midland Bank plc, 1983.
  • Brants, Johanna P. J. “A Lead Coffin from Palestine in Leiden.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies 52, no. 2 (1932): 262–63.
  • Brashear, William and Roy Kotansky. “A New Magical Formulary.” In Magic and Ritual in the Ancient World, edited by Paul Mirecki and Marvin Meyer, 3–24. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 141. Brill: Leiden, 2002.
  • Chéhab, Maurice. “Sarcophages en plomb du Musée National Libanais.” Syria 15, no. 4 (1934): 337–50.
  • Clermont-Ganneau, C. S. “Royal Ptolemaic Greek Inscriptions and Magic Lead Figures from Tell Sandahannah.” Palestine Exploration Quarterly 33, no. 1 (1901): 54–58.
  • Conybeare, Frederick Cornwallis. “The Testament of Solomon.” The Jewish Quarterly Review 11, no. 1 (1898): 1–45.
  • Cumont, Franz. After Life in Roman Paganism: Lectures Delivered at Yale University on the Silliman Foundation. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1922.
  • ———. Recherches sur le symbolisme funéraire des Romains. Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1942.
  • Dafi, Evangelia. “A Byzantine Lead Amulet from Samos.” In Byzantine Small Finds in Archaeological Contexts, edited by Beate Böhlendorf-Arslan and Alessandra Ricci, 241–47. Byzas 15. Istanbul: Ege Yayınları, 2012.
  • Davidson, Gladys R. The Minor Objects. Corinth 12. Princeton: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1942.
  • Davies, Oliver. Roman Mines in Europe. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1935.
  • Deissmann, Adolf. Licht vom Osten: Das Neue Testament und die neuentdeckten Texte der hellenistisch-römischen Welt. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1923.
  • Dessenne, André. Le Sphinx: Étude iconographique I. Des origines à la fin du second millénaire. Paris: E. de Boccard, 1957.
  • Dugas, Charles. “Figurines d’envoûtement trouvées à Délos.” Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique 39 (1915): 413–23.
  • Durand, Jannic and Bernard Flusin, editors. Byzance et les Reliques du Christ. Centre de Recherche d’Histoire et Civilisation de Byzance Monographies 17. Paris: Association des Amis du Centre d’Histoire et Civilisation de Byzance, 2004.
  • Eliopoulos, T. “Athens: News from the Kunosarges Site.” In Neue Forschungen zu griechischen Städten und Heiligtümern: Festschrift für Burkhardt Wesenberg zum 65. Geburtstag, edited by Heide Frielinghaus and Jutta Stroszeck, 85–92. Beiträge zur Archäologie Griechenlands 1. Möhnesee: Bibliopolis, 2010.
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  • ———. “Binding and Burying the Forces of Evil: The Defensive Use of “Voodoo Dolls” in Ancient Greece.” Classical Antiquity 10, no. 2 (1991): 165–205.
  • Fontenrose, Joseph E. Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959.
  • Forbes, R. J. Metallurgy in Antiquity: A Notebook for Archaeologists and Technologists. Leiden: Brill, 1950.
  • Gager, John G. Curse Tablets and Binding Spells from the Ancient World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
  • Garber, Marjorie B. and Nancy J. Vickers, editors. The Medusa Reader. London: Routledge, 2003.
  • Gill, M. V. “The Small Finds.” In Excavations at Saraçhane in Istanbul, Volume 1, edited by R. M. Harrison, 226–77. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986.
  • Gowland, William. The Early Metallurgy of Silver and Lead: Part I. Westminster: Nichols & Sons, 1901.
  • ———. “Silver in Roman and Earlier Times.” Archaeologia 69 (1918): 121–60.
  • Hofman, Karl B. Das Blei bei den Völkern des Altertums. Berlin: Carl Habel, 1885.
  • Istanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri. Stories from the Hidden Harbor: The Shipwrecks of Yenikapı. Istanbul: Istanbul Archeological Museums Press, 2013.
  • Jordan, D. R. “Two Inscribed Lead Tablets from a Well in the Athenian Kerameikos.” Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Athen 95 (1980): 225–39.
  • ———. “Defixiones from a Well near the Southwest Corner of the Athenian Agora.” Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies in Athens 54, no. 3 (1985): 205–55.
  • ———. “New Archaeological Evidence for the Practice of Magic in Classical Athens.” In Praktika tou XII Diethnous Synedriou Klasikēs Archaiologias: Athēna, 4-10 Septembriou 1983, vol. 3, 273–77. Athens: Hypourgeio Politismou kai Epistēmōn, 1988.
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Kurşunun Bağlama Gücü: Geç Antik Çağ ve Bizans Dönemlerinde Kurşunun Büyü ve Muskalarda Kullanımı

Yıl 2022, , 199 - 224, 31.12.2022
https://doi.org/10.54930/TARE.2022.6537

Öz

Bu çalışmada, kurşunun büyü bağlamında özel bir kullanımıyla ilgili sorulara yanıt aranmıştır. Orta Bizans döneminde üretilen, hystera adı verilen muskalarda kurşunun, özel kötü güçlerden koruyucu ve doğaüstü özellikleri nedeniyle tercih edilip edilmediği incelenmiştir. Kurşunun doğaüstü bağlamda ele alınabilmesi için Klasik Dönem ile Geç Antik Çağ’da kurşun kullanımından temel hatlarıyla bahsedilmiştir. Kurşun, erişim kolaylığı ve kolay işlenebilmesi nedeniyle inşaattan tıbba kadar çok geniş bir alanda kullanılmıştır. Doğası gereği sahip olduğu özelliklere ek olarak kurşun lanet tabletleri, büyü bebekleri ve lahitler gibi çeşitli buluntular, kurşunun kara büyü ve ölüler diyarı ile ilişkili kullanımını ortaya koymaktadır. Benzer şekilde, Yunan, Roma ve Bizans yazılı kaynaklarında da kurşunun tehlikeli ve zehirli doğasından bahsedilmektedir. Bu makalede, elde edilen buluntular ışığında, kurşunun Orta Bizans Dönemi’nde hystera muskalarının üretiminde, doğaüstü güçlere sahip bir materyal olarak düşünülmesi ve canlılar ile kötü ruhları bir çıkar doğrultusunda kullanma ve bağlama özelliklerinin olması nedeniyle yaygın olarak kullanıldığı ileri sürülmektedir.

Kaynakça

  • Aretaues. The Extant Works of Aretaeus, the Cappadocian. Edited by Francis Adams. Boston: Milford House, 1972.
  • Audollent, Auguste Marie Henri. Defixionum tabellae. Paris: Fontemoing, 1904.
  • Betz, Hans Dieter. The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation, including the Demotic Spells. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
  • Plato. Timaeus, Critias, Cleitophon, Menexenus, Epistles. Translated by Robert G. Bury. The Loeb Classical Library 234. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1929.
  • Hippocrates. Diseases of Women 1–2. Edited and translated by Paul Potter. The Loeb Classical Library 538. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018.
  • Bedjan, Paul. The Life of Saint Simeon Stylites: A Translation of the Syriac Text in Bedjan’s Acta martyrum et Sanctorum. Translated by Frederick Lent. Christian Roman Empire Series 7. Merchantville: Evolution Publishing, 2008.
  • Nicander. The Poems and Poetical Fragments. Edited by A. S. F. Gow and A. F. Scholfield. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953.
  • Origen. Contra Celsum. Translated by Henry Chadwick. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980.
  • Pliny. Natural History. Translated by H. Rackham and W. H. S. Jones. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1949.
  • Rosenqvist, Jan Olof. The Life of St. Irene, Abbess of Chrysobalanton: A Critical Edition with Introduction, Translation, Notes and Indices. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1986.
  • Van den Ven, Paul. La vie ancienne de S. Syméon Stylite le Jeune (521–592). Brussels: Société des Bollandistes, 1962.
  • Wünsch, Richard. Defixionum tabellae Atticae. Berlin: Georgium Reimerum, 1897.
  • Altmann, Walter. Die römischen Grabaltäre der Kaiserzeit. Berlin: Weidmann, 1905.
  • Ardaillon, Édouard. Les mines du Laurion dans l’antiquité. Paris: Thorin et fils, 1897.
  • Aubert, Jean-Jacques. “Threatened Wombs: Aspects of Ancient Uterine Magic.” Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 30, no. 3 (1989): 421–49.
  • Avi-Yonah, M. “Three Lead Coffins from Palestine.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies 50, no. 2 (1930): 300–12.
  • ———. “Lead Coffins from Palestine.” Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine 4 (1935): 87–99.
  • Aviam, Mordechai and Dina Shalem. “A Decorated Fragment of a Tyrian Lead Coffin from a Cemetery at Akhziv.” Israel Exploration Journal 64, no. 2 (2014): 208–11.
  • Baldwin, Barry. “Michael Psellus on the Properties of Stones.” Byzantinoslavica 56 (1995): 397–405.
  • Barb, Alphons Augustinus. “Diva Matrix.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 16 (1953): 193–238.
  • ———. “Antaura. The Mermaid and the Devil’s Grandmother: A Lecture.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 29 (1966): 1–23.
  • Bel, Nicolas, Cécile Giroire, Florence Gombert-Meurice, and Marie-Hélène Rutschowscaya. L’Orient romain et byzantin au Louvre. Arles: Actes sud, 2012.
  • Besnier, M. “Le commerce du plomb à l’époque romaine d’après les lingots estampillés.” Revue Archéologique 12 (1920): 211–44.
  • Blake, Robert P. “The Circulation of Silver in the Moslem East Down to the Mongol Epoch.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 2, no. 3/4 (1937): 291–328.
  • Boulakia, Jean David C. “Lead in the Roman World.” American Journal of Archaeology 76, no. 2 (1972): 139–44.
  • Bouras, Laskarina, Alexandra Petrides and Popi Tsakirakis. The Griffin through the Ages. Athens: Midland Bank plc, 1983.
  • Brants, Johanna P. J. “A Lead Coffin from Palestine in Leiden.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies 52, no. 2 (1932): 262–63.
  • Brashear, William and Roy Kotansky. “A New Magical Formulary.” In Magic and Ritual in the Ancient World, edited by Paul Mirecki and Marvin Meyer, 3–24. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 141. Brill: Leiden, 2002.
  • Chéhab, Maurice. “Sarcophages en plomb du Musée National Libanais.” Syria 15, no. 4 (1934): 337–50.
  • Clermont-Ganneau, C. S. “Royal Ptolemaic Greek Inscriptions and Magic Lead Figures from Tell Sandahannah.” Palestine Exploration Quarterly 33, no. 1 (1901): 54–58.
  • Conybeare, Frederick Cornwallis. “The Testament of Solomon.” The Jewish Quarterly Review 11, no. 1 (1898): 1–45.
  • Cumont, Franz. After Life in Roman Paganism: Lectures Delivered at Yale University on the Silliman Foundation. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1922.
  • ———. Recherches sur le symbolisme funéraire des Romains. Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1942.
  • Dafi, Evangelia. “A Byzantine Lead Amulet from Samos.” In Byzantine Small Finds in Archaeological Contexts, edited by Beate Böhlendorf-Arslan and Alessandra Ricci, 241–47. Byzas 15. Istanbul: Ege Yayınları, 2012.
  • Davidson, Gladys R. The Minor Objects. Corinth 12. Princeton: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1942.
  • Davies, Oliver. Roman Mines in Europe. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1935.
  • Deissmann, Adolf. Licht vom Osten: Das Neue Testament und die neuentdeckten Texte der hellenistisch-römischen Welt. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1923.
  • Dessenne, André. Le Sphinx: Étude iconographique I. Des origines à la fin du second millénaire. Paris: E. de Boccard, 1957.
  • Dugas, Charles. “Figurines d’envoûtement trouvées à Délos.” Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique 39 (1915): 413–23.
  • Durand, Jannic and Bernard Flusin, editors. Byzance et les Reliques du Christ. Centre de Recherche d’Histoire et Civilisation de Byzance Monographies 17. Paris: Association des Amis du Centre d’Histoire et Civilisation de Byzance, 2004.
  • Eliopoulos, T. “Athens: News from the Kunosarges Site.” In Neue Forschungen zu griechischen Städten und Heiligtümern: Festschrift für Burkhardt Wesenberg zum 65. Geburtstag, edited by Heide Frielinghaus and Jutta Stroszeck, 85–92. Beiträge zur Archäologie Griechenlands 1. Möhnesee: Bibliopolis, 2010.
  • Faraone, Christopher A. “The Agnostic Context of Early Greek Binding Spells.” In Magika Hiera: Ancient Greek Magic and Religion, edited by Christopher A. Faraone and Dirk Obbink, 3–32. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
  • ———. “Binding and Burying the Forces of Evil: The Defensive Use of “Voodoo Dolls” in Ancient Greece.” Classical Antiquity 10, no. 2 (1991): 165–205.
  • Fontenrose, Joseph E. Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959.
  • Forbes, R. J. Metallurgy in Antiquity: A Notebook for Archaeologists and Technologists. Leiden: Brill, 1950.
  • Gager, John G. Curse Tablets and Binding Spells from the Ancient World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
  • Garber, Marjorie B. and Nancy J. Vickers, editors. The Medusa Reader. London: Routledge, 2003.
  • Gill, M. V. “The Small Finds.” In Excavations at Saraçhane in Istanbul, Volume 1, edited by R. M. Harrison, 226–77. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986.
  • Gowland, William. The Early Metallurgy of Silver and Lead: Part I. Westminster: Nichols & Sons, 1901.
  • ———. “Silver in Roman and Earlier Times.” Archaeologia 69 (1918): 121–60.
  • Hofman, Karl B. Das Blei bei den Völkern des Altertums. Berlin: Carl Habel, 1885.
  • Istanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri. Stories from the Hidden Harbor: The Shipwrecks of Yenikapı. Istanbul: Istanbul Archeological Museums Press, 2013.
  • Jordan, D. R. “Two Inscribed Lead Tablets from a Well in the Athenian Kerameikos.” Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Athen 95 (1980): 225–39.
  • ———. “Defixiones from a Well near the Southwest Corner of the Athenian Agora.” Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies in Athens 54, no. 3 (1985): 205–55.
  • ———. “New Archaeological Evidence for the Practice of Magic in Classical Athens.” In Praktika tou XII Diethnous Synedriou Klasikēs Archaiologias: Athēna, 4-10 Septembriou 1983, vol. 3, 273–77. Athens: Hypourgeio Politismou kai Epistēmōn, 1988.
  • King, Charles W. “The Roman Manes: The Dead as Gods.” In Rethinking Ghosts in World Religions, edited by Mu-chou Poo, 95–114. Leiden: Brill, 2009.
  • Kornbluth, Genevra. “‘Early Byzantine’ Crystals: An Assessment.” Journal of the Walters Art Gallery 52/53 (1994/95): 23–32.
  • Kagarow, Eugen G. Griechische Fluchtafeln. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1929.
  • Kotansky, Roy. “An Early Christian Gold Lamella for Headache.” In Magic and Ritual in the Ancient World, edited by Paul Mirecki and Marvin Meyer, 37–46. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 41. Leiden: Brill, 2002.
  • Kotansky, Roy and J. Curbera. “Unpublished Lead Tablets in the Getty Museum.” Mediterraneo Antico: Economie, Società, Culture 7 (2004): 681–91.
  • Kyriakakis, James. “Byzantine Burial Customs: Care for the Deceased from Death to Prothesis.” Greek Orthodox Theological Review 19 (1974): 37–72.
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  • Nriagu, Jerome O. Lead and Lead Poisoning in Antiquity. New York: Wiley, 1983.
  • ———. “Saturnine Gout among Roman Aristocrats: Did Lead Poisoning Contribute to the Fall of the Empire?” The New England Journal of Medicine 308 (1983): 660–63.
  • Ogden, Daniel. “Binding Spells: Curse Tablets and Voodoo Dolls in the Greek and Roman Worlds.” In Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome, edited by Bengt Ankarloo and Stuart Clarke, 1–90. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999.
  • Ogle, M. B. “Laurel in Ancient Religion and Folk-Lore.” American Journal of Philology 31, no. 3 (1910): 287–311.
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  • White, Donald. “Of Coffins, Curses and Other Plumbeous Matters: The Museum’s Lead Burial Casket from Tyre.” Expedition 39, no. 3 (1997): 3–14.
  • ———. “The Eschatological Connection between Lead and Ropes as Reflected in a Roman Imperial Period Coffin in Philadelphia.” Israel Exploration Journal 49, no. 1/2 (1999): 66–91.
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Toplam 98 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Arkeoloji
Bölüm Araştırma Makaleleri
Yazarlar

Deniz Sever Georgousakis

Yayımlanma Tarihi 31 Aralık 2022
Gönderilme Tarihi 3 Ağustos 2022
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2022

Kaynak Göster

Chicago Sever Georgousakis, Deniz. “Binding Power of Lead: Magical and Amuletic Uses of Lead in Late Antique and Byzantine Periods”. TARE: Türk Arkeoloji Ve Kültürel Miras Enstitüsü Dergisi, sy. 2 (Aralık 2022): 199-224. https://doi.org/10.54930/TARE.2022.6537.