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The Issue of Normative Criteria For The European Union’s Conventional Arms Exports

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 4 Sayı: 1, 31 - 51, 10.01.2024

Öz

After the end of the Cold War, the European Union has expressed its will to reflect its identity image based on democratic values in its common foreign policy at every opportunity. The issue of conventional arms exports, which can be considered a part of foreign policy, started to be regulated by normative criteria aimed at promoting democratic values and peace in the 1990s. Announced in 1998 in the form of a Code of Conduct, the criteria were transformed into a Common Position document in 2008 and made mandatory. As this article has tried to show, although the EU seems to approach conventional arms exports on the basis of democracy and peace in terms of rhetoric and regulation, member states do not stop acting according to their national and economic interests in practice. The problems arising from the content of the criteria on the one hand, and the lack of transparency of the member states towards each other in terms of information sharing on the other, are among the main evidences that lead to such a conclusion.

Kaynakça

  • Adelman, H. & Suhrke, A. (1996). The International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience, Steering Committee of the Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda.
  • Aerospace Industries Association. (2020). Facts & Figures 2020, The Aerospace and Defence Industries Association of Europe.
  • Afionis, S. & Stringer, L. C. (2012). “European Union Leadership in Biofuels Regulation: Europe as a Normative Power?”, Journal of Cleaner Production, Cilt: 32, ss. 114-123.
  • Alonso, E. M. (2012). “European Union Countries’ Policy on Arms Exports to Africa 2002-2010”, International Catalan Institute for Peace, Barcelona: International Catalan Institute for Peace.
  • Amnesty International. (2004). Undermining Global Security – The European Union’s Arms Exports, Londra: Amnesty International.
  • Amnesty International. (2005). Democratic Republic of Congo: Arming the East, Londra: Amnesty International.
  • Anderson, D. G. (1992). “The International Arms Trade: Regulating Conventional Arms Transfers in the Aftermath of the Gulf War”, American University International Law Review, Cilt: 7, Sayı: 4, ss. 749-805.
  • Andrew M. (2003). “Striking a New Transatlantic Bargain”, Foreign Affairs, Cilt: 82, Sayı: 4, ss. 74-89.
  • Bauer, S. & Bromley, M. (2004). The European Union Code of Conduct on Arms Exports Improving the Annual Report, Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.
  • Bauer, S. (2003). “The EU Code of Conduct on Arms Exports – Enhancing the Accountability of Arms Export Policies?”, European Security, Cilt: 12, Sayı: 3-4, ss. 129-147.
  • Bauer, S., Bromley, M. & Maletta, G. (2017). Workshop: The Implementation of the EU Arms Export Control System, Belçika: European Parliament DG for External Policies.
  • Boie, H. (2009). Civilian Power – An Analysis of Euro-Mediterranean Relations, Berlin: Lit Verlag.
  • Bonaiuti, C. (2023). “Arms Exports and Human Rights”, Social Europe, https://www.socialeurope.eu/arms-exports-and-human-rights, (Erişim Tarihi: 28.02.2023).
  • Brillaud, L. et al. (2022). “EU Member States Exported Weapons to Russia after the 2014 Embargo”, Investigate Europe, https://www.investigate-europe.eu/en/2022/eu-states-exported-weapons-to-russia/, (Erişim Tarihi: 02.04.2023).
  • Bromley, M. (2008). The Impact on Domestic Policy of the EU Code of Conduct on Arms Exports - The Czech Republic, the Netherlands and Spain, Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.
  • Bromley, M. (2012). “The Review of the EU Common Position on Arms Exports: Prospects for Strengthened Controls”, EU Non-Proliferation Consortium Non-Proliferation Papers,
  • Brzoska, M. (1995). “Prospects for a Common Arms Transfer Policy from the European Union to the Middle East”, Contemporary Security Policy, Cilt: 16, Sayı: 1, ss. 14-33.
  • Burrows, G. (2002). The No-Nonsense Guide to the Arms Trade, Oxford: New Internationalist Publications.
  • Calleo, D. P. (1996). “Europe and World Order After the Cold War”, Old Dominion University Working Paper, https://www.nato.int/acad/conf/future95/calleo.htm, (Erişim Tarihi: 05. 02. 2023).
  • Cooper, N. (2000). “Arms Exports, New Labour and the Pariah Agenda”, Contemporary Security Policy, Cilt: 21, Sayı: 3, ss. 54-77.
  • Cops, D. & Duquet, N. (2019). “Reviewing the EU Common Position on arms exports: Whither EU arms transfer controls?”, Flemish Peace Institute Policy Brief, Brussels: Flemish Peace Institute.
  • Cops, D., Duquet, N. & Gourdin, G. (2017). Towards Europeanized Arms Export Controls? Comparing Control Systems in EU Member States, Brussels: Flemish Peace Institute.
  • Council of the European Union. (2001). “Applying a Scheme of Generalised Tariff Preferences for the Period from 1 January 2002 to 31 December 2004”, Council Regulation (EC) No 2501/2001. Brussels: CEU.
  • Davis, I. (1998). “European Integration and the Arms Trade: Creating a New Moral Imperative?”, (Der.) B. McSweeney, Moral Issues in International Affairs Problems of European Integration, London: Macmillan Press, ss. 187-220.
  • Davis, I. (2002). The Regulation of Arms and Dual-Use Exports – Germany, Sweden and the UK, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  • Debata, M.R. (2010). “International Response to Uyghur Separatism in Xinjiang”, Himalayan and Central Asian Studies, Cilt: 14, Sayı: 4, ss. 55-78.
  • Demirtepe, M.T. & Bozbey, A. İ. (2012). "Accommodation or Assimilation? Chinese Government Policies toward Uyghur Minority", Yearbook of Politics and International Relations, Cilt: 5, ss. 151-174.
  • Diez, T. (2005). “Constructing the Self and Changing Others: Reconsidering Normative Power Europe”, Millennium: Journal of International Studies, Cilt: 33, Sayı: 3, ss. 613-636.
  • Duchêne, F. (1972). “Europe’s Role in World Peace”, (Der.) R. Mayne, Europe Tomorrow: Sixteen Europeans Look Ahead, London: Fontana.
  • Erickson, J. L. (2010). “Who gets sanctioned? Characteristics of arms embargo states”, American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Washington: American Political Science Association.
  • Erickson, J. L. (2011). “Market Imperative Meets Normative Power: Human Rights and European Arms Transfer Policy”, European Journal of International Relations, Cilt: 19, Sayı: 2, ss. 209-234.
  • Erickson, J. L. (2015). Dangerous Trade – Arms Exports, Human Rights and International Reputation, New York: Colombia University Press.
  • Erickson, J. L. (2019). “Punishing the violators? Arms embargoes and economic sanctions as tools of norm enforcement”, Review of International Studies, Cilt: 46, Sayı: 1, ss. 96-120.
  • European Commission. (2017a). Blueprint for Sectoral Cooperation on Skills: Responding to Skills Mismatches at Sectoral Level, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
  • European Commission. (2017b). White Paper: On the Future of Europe – Reflections and Scenarios for the EU27 by 2025, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52017DC2025&from=es, (Erişim Tarihi: 02.04. 2023).
  • European Parliament. (2020) Recommendations for a Transparent and Detailed Reporting System on Arms Exports within the EU and to Third Countries.
  • European Union. (2021). “Regulation (EU) 2021/821 of the European Parliament and of the Council”, Official Journal of the European Union, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32021R0821&from=EN, (Erişim Tarihi: 29.03.2023).
  • Goose, S. D. & Smyth. F. (1994). “Arming Genocide in Rwanda”, Foreign Affairs, Cilt: 73, Sayı: 5, ss. 86-96.
  • Habermas, J. & Derrida, J. (2005). “February 15, or, What Binds Europeans Together: Plea for a Common Foreign Policy, Beginning in Core Europe”, (Der.) D. Levy, M. Pensky & J. Torpey Old Europe, New Europe, Core Europe, Londra: Verso, 291-297.
  • Hansen, S. T. & Marsh, N. (2015). “Normative Power and Organized Hypocrisy: European Union Member States’ Arms Export to Libya”, European Security, Cilt: 24, Sayı: 2, ss. 264-286.
  • Hansen, S. T. (2016). “Taking Ambiguity Seriously: Explaining the Indeterminacy of the European Union Conventional Arms Export Control Regime”, European Journal of International Relations, Cilt: 22, Sayı: 1, ss. 192-216.
  • Hendrickson, R. C., Strand, J.R & Raney, K.L. (2007). “Operation Artemis and Javier Solana: EU Prospect for a Stronger Common Foreign and Security Policy”, Canadian Military Journal, Cilt: 8, Sayı: 1, ss. 35-42.
  • Holm, K. (2006). “Europeanising Export Controls: The Impact of the European Union Code of Conduct on Arms Exports in Belgium, Germany and Italy”, European Security, Cilt: 15, Sayı: 2, ss. 215-234.
  • Holm, K. (2006). “Europeanising Export Controls: The Impact of the European Union Code of Conduct on Arms Exports in Belgium, Germany and Italy”, European Security, Cilt: 15, Sayı: 2, ss. 213-234.
  • Human Rights Watch. (2015). Rwanda/Zaire - Rearming with Impunity International Support for the Perpetrators of the Rwandan Genocide, https://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/Rwanda1.htm, (Erişim Tarihi: 12.03.2023).
  • Hyde-Price, A. (2006). “‘Normative’ Power Europe: A Realist Critique”, Journal of European Public Policy, Cilt: 13, Sayı: 2, ss. 217-234.
  • Jüneman, A. (2004). “Repercussions of the Emerging European Security and Defence Policy on the Civil Character of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership”, (Der.) Annette Jüneman, Euro-Mediterranean Relations After September 11, London: Frank Cass, ss. 38-53.
  • Kagan, R. (2002). “Power and Weakness”, Policy Review, Cilt: 113, ss. 3-28.
  • Kranz, K. (2016). “European Union Arms Embargoes: the Relationship between Institutional Design and Norms”, Cambridge Review of International Affairs, Cilt: 29, Sayı: 3, ss. 970-996.
  • Manners, I. (2002). "Normative Power Europe: A Contradiction in Terms?”, Journal of Common Market Studies, Cilt: 40, ss. 235–258.
  • Manners, I. (2006). “Normative Power Europe Reconsidered: Beyond the Crossroads”, Journal of European Public Policy, Cilt: 13, Sayı: 2, ss. 182-199.
  • Mawdsley, J. (2018). “Armaments decision-making: Are European states really different?”, Comparative Strategy, Cilt: 37, Sayı: 4, ss. 260-271.
  • Mcnulty, M. (2000). “French Arms, War and Genocide in Rwanda”, Crime, Law and Social Change, Cilt: 33, ss. 105-129.
  • Norveç Nobel Komitesi. (2012). “The Nobel Peace Prize for 2012”, https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2012/press-release, (Erişim Tarihi: 14.01.2023).
  • Ohlson, T. (1988). “Introduction”, (Der.) T. Ohlson, Arms Transfer Limitations and Third World Security, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ss. 1-14.
  • Peltner, A. (2015). “Germany’s Role in Rwanda’s Genocide: See No Evil, Hear No Evil?”, https://www.dw.com/en/germanys-role-in-rwandas-genocide-see-no-evil-hear-no-evil/a-18522377, (Erişim Tarihi: 12.11.2022).
  • Reinicke, W.H. (1992). “Arms Sales Abroad: European Community Export Controls Beyond 1992”, The Brookings Review, Cilt: 10, Sayı:3, ss. 22-25.
  • Rifkin, J. (2010). Avrupa Rüyası, İstanbul: Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
  • Schmitt, B. (2000). “From Cooperation to Integration: Defence and Aerospace Industries in Europe”, Chaillot Papers 40, Western European Union Institute for Security Studies.
  • SIPRI. (1993). Sipri Yearbook 1993, Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.
  • SIPRI. (2020). “Trends in International Arms Transfers-2019”, Sipri Fact Sheet March 2020, https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2020-03/fs_2003_at_2019.pdf, (Erişim Tarihi: 09.02.2023).
  • Sicurelli, D. (2010). The European Union’s Africa Policies – Norms, Interests and Impact, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing.
  • Smith, K. E. (2000). “The End of Civilian Power EU: A Welcome Demise or Cause for Concern?”, The International Spectator, Cilt: 35, Sayı: 2, ss. 11-28.
  • Stohl, R. ve Grillot, S. (2009). The International Arms Trade, Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Taylor, T. (1994). “Conventional Arms: The Drives to Export” (Der.) Trevor Taylor and Ryukichi Imai, Security Challenges for Japan and Europe in a Post-Cold War World, Volume III, Londra: Royal Institute of International Affairs and Institute for Intemational Policy Studies, ss. 95-123.
  • The Council of the EU. (1991). Declaration on Non-Proliferation and Arms Exports, Conclusions of the Presidency, 28-29 Haziran, Lüksemburg: European Council Presidency.
  • The Council of the EU. (1992). Conclusions of the Presidency, 26-27 Haziran, Lizbon: European Council Presidency.
  • The Council of the EU. (1998). European Union Code of Conduct on Arms Exports, 5 Haziran, Brüksel: The Council of the EU.
  • Transnational Institute. (2021). Smoking Guns - How European Arms Exports are Forcing Millions from Their Homes, Amsterdam: Transnational Institute.
  • Walker, A. (2004). “World ‘Failing Poverty Pledges’”, BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3651809.stm, (Erişim Tarihi: 10.04.2023).
  • Weiler, J. (1998). “Ideals and Idolatry in the European Construct”, (Der.) Bill Mcsweeney, Moral Issues in International Affairs Problems of European Integration, Londra: Macmillan Press, ss. 55-88.
  • Whitman, R. G. (1998). From Civilian Power to Superpower? The International Identity of the European Union, New York: NY: St. Martin’s Press.
  • Whitman, R. G. (2011). Normative Power Europe – Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives, Londra: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Wisotzki, S. & Mutschler, M. (2021). “No Common Position! European Arms Export Control in Crisis”, Zeitschrift für Friedens- und Konfliktforschung, Cilt: 10, ss. 273-293.
  • Wood, S. (2009). “The European Union: A Normative or Normal Power?,” European Foreign Affairs Review, Cilt: 14, ss. 113–128.
  • Yanik, L. K. (2006). “Guns and Human Rights: Major Powers, Global Arms Transfers, and Human Rights Violations”, Human Rights Quarterly, Cilt: 28, Sayı: 2, ss. 357-388.

Avrupa Birliği’nin Konvansiyonel Silah İhracatında Normatif Kriter Meselesi

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 4 Sayı: 1, 31 - 51, 10.01.2024

Öz

Soğuk Savaşın sona ermesinin ardından Avrupa Birliği, demokratik değerlere dayalı kimliksel imajını ortak dış politikasına da yansıtma iradesini her fırsatta dile getirmiştir. Dış politikanın bir parçası sayılabilecek konvansiyonel silah ihracatı meselesi de 1990’larla birlikte demokratik değerleri ve barışı yayma amaçlı normatif kriterlerle düzenlenmeye başlanmıştır. 1998 yılında Davranış Kuralları formunda ilan edilen kriterler, 2008 yılında Ortak Pozisyon belgesine dönüştürülerek zorunlu hale getirilmiştir. Bu makalede ortaya konmaya çalışıldığı gibi, AB retorik ve düzenleme anlamında konvansiyonel silah ihracatına demokrasi ve barış temelli yaklaşıyor görünse de üye devletler uygulamada kendi ulusal ve ekonomik çıkarlarına göre hareket etmekten vazgeçmemektedirler. Bir yandan kriterlerin içeriğinden kaynaklanan sorunlar diğer yandan da üye ülkelerin bilgi paylaşımı noktasında birbirlerine karşı yeterince şeffaf olmamaları, böyle bir sonuca ulaştıran kanıtların başında gelmektedir.

Kaynakça

  • Adelman, H. & Suhrke, A. (1996). The International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience, Steering Committee of the Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda.
  • Aerospace Industries Association. (2020). Facts & Figures 2020, The Aerospace and Defence Industries Association of Europe.
  • Afionis, S. & Stringer, L. C. (2012). “European Union Leadership in Biofuels Regulation: Europe as a Normative Power?”, Journal of Cleaner Production, Cilt: 32, ss. 114-123.
  • Alonso, E. M. (2012). “European Union Countries’ Policy on Arms Exports to Africa 2002-2010”, International Catalan Institute for Peace, Barcelona: International Catalan Institute for Peace.
  • Amnesty International. (2004). Undermining Global Security – The European Union’s Arms Exports, Londra: Amnesty International.
  • Amnesty International. (2005). Democratic Republic of Congo: Arming the East, Londra: Amnesty International.
  • Anderson, D. G. (1992). “The International Arms Trade: Regulating Conventional Arms Transfers in the Aftermath of the Gulf War”, American University International Law Review, Cilt: 7, Sayı: 4, ss. 749-805.
  • Andrew M. (2003). “Striking a New Transatlantic Bargain”, Foreign Affairs, Cilt: 82, Sayı: 4, ss. 74-89.
  • Bauer, S. & Bromley, M. (2004). The European Union Code of Conduct on Arms Exports Improving the Annual Report, Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.
  • Bauer, S. (2003). “The EU Code of Conduct on Arms Exports – Enhancing the Accountability of Arms Export Policies?”, European Security, Cilt: 12, Sayı: 3-4, ss. 129-147.
  • Bauer, S., Bromley, M. & Maletta, G. (2017). Workshop: The Implementation of the EU Arms Export Control System, Belçika: European Parliament DG for External Policies.
  • Boie, H. (2009). Civilian Power – An Analysis of Euro-Mediterranean Relations, Berlin: Lit Verlag.
  • Bonaiuti, C. (2023). “Arms Exports and Human Rights”, Social Europe, https://www.socialeurope.eu/arms-exports-and-human-rights, (Erişim Tarihi: 28.02.2023).
  • Brillaud, L. et al. (2022). “EU Member States Exported Weapons to Russia after the 2014 Embargo”, Investigate Europe, https://www.investigate-europe.eu/en/2022/eu-states-exported-weapons-to-russia/, (Erişim Tarihi: 02.04.2023).
  • Bromley, M. (2008). The Impact on Domestic Policy of the EU Code of Conduct on Arms Exports - The Czech Republic, the Netherlands and Spain, Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.
  • Bromley, M. (2012). “The Review of the EU Common Position on Arms Exports: Prospects for Strengthened Controls”, EU Non-Proliferation Consortium Non-Proliferation Papers,
  • Brzoska, M. (1995). “Prospects for a Common Arms Transfer Policy from the European Union to the Middle East”, Contemporary Security Policy, Cilt: 16, Sayı: 1, ss. 14-33.
  • Burrows, G. (2002). The No-Nonsense Guide to the Arms Trade, Oxford: New Internationalist Publications.
  • Calleo, D. P. (1996). “Europe and World Order After the Cold War”, Old Dominion University Working Paper, https://www.nato.int/acad/conf/future95/calleo.htm, (Erişim Tarihi: 05. 02. 2023).
  • Cooper, N. (2000). “Arms Exports, New Labour and the Pariah Agenda”, Contemporary Security Policy, Cilt: 21, Sayı: 3, ss. 54-77.
  • Cops, D. & Duquet, N. (2019). “Reviewing the EU Common Position on arms exports: Whither EU arms transfer controls?”, Flemish Peace Institute Policy Brief, Brussels: Flemish Peace Institute.
  • Cops, D., Duquet, N. & Gourdin, G. (2017). Towards Europeanized Arms Export Controls? Comparing Control Systems in EU Member States, Brussels: Flemish Peace Institute.
  • Council of the European Union. (2001). “Applying a Scheme of Generalised Tariff Preferences for the Period from 1 January 2002 to 31 December 2004”, Council Regulation (EC) No 2501/2001. Brussels: CEU.
  • Davis, I. (1998). “European Integration and the Arms Trade: Creating a New Moral Imperative?”, (Der.) B. McSweeney, Moral Issues in International Affairs Problems of European Integration, London: Macmillan Press, ss. 187-220.
  • Davis, I. (2002). The Regulation of Arms and Dual-Use Exports – Germany, Sweden and the UK, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  • Debata, M.R. (2010). “International Response to Uyghur Separatism in Xinjiang”, Himalayan and Central Asian Studies, Cilt: 14, Sayı: 4, ss. 55-78.
  • Demirtepe, M.T. & Bozbey, A. İ. (2012). "Accommodation or Assimilation? Chinese Government Policies toward Uyghur Minority", Yearbook of Politics and International Relations, Cilt: 5, ss. 151-174.
  • Diez, T. (2005). “Constructing the Self and Changing Others: Reconsidering Normative Power Europe”, Millennium: Journal of International Studies, Cilt: 33, Sayı: 3, ss. 613-636.
  • Duchêne, F. (1972). “Europe’s Role in World Peace”, (Der.) R. Mayne, Europe Tomorrow: Sixteen Europeans Look Ahead, London: Fontana.
  • Erickson, J. L. (2010). “Who gets sanctioned? Characteristics of arms embargo states”, American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Washington: American Political Science Association.
  • Erickson, J. L. (2011). “Market Imperative Meets Normative Power: Human Rights and European Arms Transfer Policy”, European Journal of International Relations, Cilt: 19, Sayı: 2, ss. 209-234.
  • Erickson, J. L. (2015). Dangerous Trade – Arms Exports, Human Rights and International Reputation, New York: Colombia University Press.
  • Erickson, J. L. (2019). “Punishing the violators? Arms embargoes and economic sanctions as tools of norm enforcement”, Review of International Studies, Cilt: 46, Sayı: 1, ss. 96-120.
  • European Commission. (2017a). Blueprint for Sectoral Cooperation on Skills: Responding to Skills Mismatches at Sectoral Level, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
  • European Commission. (2017b). White Paper: On the Future of Europe – Reflections and Scenarios for the EU27 by 2025, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52017DC2025&from=es, (Erişim Tarihi: 02.04. 2023).
  • European Parliament. (2020) Recommendations for a Transparent and Detailed Reporting System on Arms Exports within the EU and to Third Countries.
  • European Union. (2021). “Regulation (EU) 2021/821 of the European Parliament and of the Council”, Official Journal of the European Union, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32021R0821&from=EN, (Erişim Tarihi: 29.03.2023).
  • Goose, S. D. & Smyth. F. (1994). “Arming Genocide in Rwanda”, Foreign Affairs, Cilt: 73, Sayı: 5, ss. 86-96.
  • Habermas, J. & Derrida, J. (2005). “February 15, or, What Binds Europeans Together: Plea for a Common Foreign Policy, Beginning in Core Europe”, (Der.) D. Levy, M. Pensky & J. Torpey Old Europe, New Europe, Core Europe, Londra: Verso, 291-297.
  • Hansen, S. T. & Marsh, N. (2015). “Normative Power and Organized Hypocrisy: European Union Member States’ Arms Export to Libya”, European Security, Cilt: 24, Sayı: 2, ss. 264-286.
  • Hansen, S. T. (2016). “Taking Ambiguity Seriously: Explaining the Indeterminacy of the European Union Conventional Arms Export Control Regime”, European Journal of International Relations, Cilt: 22, Sayı: 1, ss. 192-216.
  • Hendrickson, R. C., Strand, J.R & Raney, K.L. (2007). “Operation Artemis and Javier Solana: EU Prospect for a Stronger Common Foreign and Security Policy”, Canadian Military Journal, Cilt: 8, Sayı: 1, ss. 35-42.
  • Holm, K. (2006). “Europeanising Export Controls: The Impact of the European Union Code of Conduct on Arms Exports in Belgium, Germany and Italy”, European Security, Cilt: 15, Sayı: 2, ss. 215-234.
  • Holm, K. (2006). “Europeanising Export Controls: The Impact of the European Union Code of Conduct on Arms Exports in Belgium, Germany and Italy”, European Security, Cilt: 15, Sayı: 2, ss. 213-234.
  • Human Rights Watch. (2015). Rwanda/Zaire - Rearming with Impunity International Support for the Perpetrators of the Rwandan Genocide, https://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/Rwanda1.htm, (Erişim Tarihi: 12.03.2023).
  • Hyde-Price, A. (2006). “‘Normative’ Power Europe: A Realist Critique”, Journal of European Public Policy, Cilt: 13, Sayı: 2, ss. 217-234.
  • Jüneman, A. (2004). “Repercussions of the Emerging European Security and Defence Policy on the Civil Character of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership”, (Der.) Annette Jüneman, Euro-Mediterranean Relations After September 11, London: Frank Cass, ss. 38-53.
  • Kagan, R. (2002). “Power and Weakness”, Policy Review, Cilt: 113, ss. 3-28.
  • Kranz, K. (2016). “European Union Arms Embargoes: the Relationship between Institutional Design and Norms”, Cambridge Review of International Affairs, Cilt: 29, Sayı: 3, ss. 970-996.
  • Manners, I. (2002). "Normative Power Europe: A Contradiction in Terms?”, Journal of Common Market Studies, Cilt: 40, ss. 235–258.
  • Manners, I. (2006). “Normative Power Europe Reconsidered: Beyond the Crossroads”, Journal of European Public Policy, Cilt: 13, Sayı: 2, ss. 182-199.
  • Mawdsley, J. (2018). “Armaments decision-making: Are European states really different?”, Comparative Strategy, Cilt: 37, Sayı: 4, ss. 260-271.
  • Mcnulty, M. (2000). “French Arms, War and Genocide in Rwanda”, Crime, Law and Social Change, Cilt: 33, ss. 105-129.
  • Norveç Nobel Komitesi. (2012). “The Nobel Peace Prize for 2012”, https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2012/press-release, (Erişim Tarihi: 14.01.2023).
  • Ohlson, T. (1988). “Introduction”, (Der.) T. Ohlson, Arms Transfer Limitations and Third World Security, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ss. 1-14.
  • Peltner, A. (2015). “Germany’s Role in Rwanda’s Genocide: See No Evil, Hear No Evil?”, https://www.dw.com/en/germanys-role-in-rwandas-genocide-see-no-evil-hear-no-evil/a-18522377, (Erişim Tarihi: 12.11.2022).
  • Reinicke, W.H. (1992). “Arms Sales Abroad: European Community Export Controls Beyond 1992”, The Brookings Review, Cilt: 10, Sayı:3, ss. 22-25.
  • Rifkin, J. (2010). Avrupa Rüyası, İstanbul: Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
  • Schmitt, B. (2000). “From Cooperation to Integration: Defence and Aerospace Industries in Europe”, Chaillot Papers 40, Western European Union Institute for Security Studies.
  • SIPRI. (1993). Sipri Yearbook 1993, Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.
  • SIPRI. (2020). “Trends in International Arms Transfers-2019”, Sipri Fact Sheet March 2020, https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2020-03/fs_2003_at_2019.pdf, (Erişim Tarihi: 09.02.2023).
  • Sicurelli, D. (2010). The European Union’s Africa Policies – Norms, Interests and Impact, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing.
  • Smith, K. E. (2000). “The End of Civilian Power EU: A Welcome Demise or Cause for Concern?”, The International Spectator, Cilt: 35, Sayı: 2, ss. 11-28.
  • Stohl, R. ve Grillot, S. (2009). The International Arms Trade, Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Taylor, T. (1994). “Conventional Arms: The Drives to Export” (Der.) Trevor Taylor and Ryukichi Imai, Security Challenges for Japan and Europe in a Post-Cold War World, Volume III, Londra: Royal Institute of International Affairs and Institute for Intemational Policy Studies, ss. 95-123.
  • The Council of the EU. (1991). Declaration on Non-Proliferation and Arms Exports, Conclusions of the Presidency, 28-29 Haziran, Lüksemburg: European Council Presidency.
  • The Council of the EU. (1992). Conclusions of the Presidency, 26-27 Haziran, Lizbon: European Council Presidency.
  • The Council of the EU. (1998). European Union Code of Conduct on Arms Exports, 5 Haziran, Brüksel: The Council of the EU.
  • Transnational Institute. (2021). Smoking Guns - How European Arms Exports are Forcing Millions from Their Homes, Amsterdam: Transnational Institute.
  • Walker, A. (2004). “World ‘Failing Poverty Pledges’”, BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3651809.stm, (Erişim Tarihi: 10.04.2023).
  • Weiler, J. (1998). “Ideals and Idolatry in the European Construct”, (Der.) Bill Mcsweeney, Moral Issues in International Affairs Problems of European Integration, Londra: Macmillan Press, ss. 55-88.
  • Whitman, R. G. (1998). From Civilian Power to Superpower? The International Identity of the European Union, New York: NY: St. Martin’s Press.
  • Whitman, R. G. (2011). Normative Power Europe – Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives, Londra: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Wisotzki, S. & Mutschler, M. (2021). “No Common Position! European Arms Export Control in Crisis”, Zeitschrift für Friedens- und Konfliktforschung, Cilt: 10, ss. 273-293.
  • Wood, S. (2009). “The European Union: A Normative or Normal Power?,” European Foreign Affairs Review, Cilt: 14, ss. 113–128.
  • Yanik, L. K. (2006). “Guns and Human Rights: Major Powers, Global Arms Transfers, and Human Rights Violations”, Human Rights Quarterly, Cilt: 28, Sayı: 2, ss. 357-388.
Toplam 76 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Avrupa ve Bölge Çalışmaları, Avrupa Birliği
Bölüm Araştırma Makaleleri
Yazarlar

Hakan Samur 0000-0003-1980-9347

Erken Görünüm Tarihi 20 Eylül 2023
Yayımlanma Tarihi 10 Ocak 2024
Gönderilme Tarihi 25 Temmuz 2023
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2024 Cilt: 4 Sayı: 1

Kaynak Göster

APA Samur, H. (2024). Avrupa Birliği’nin Konvansiyonel Silah İhracatında Normatif Kriter Meselesi. Uluslararası İlişkiler Ve Politika Dergisi, 4(1), 31-51.

Creative Commons Lisansı                      Bu eser Creative Commons Atıf-GayriTicari 4.0 Uluslararası Lisansı ile lisanslanmıştır.

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