Cinsiyetçiliği Azaltmaya Yönelik Müdahale Çalışmaları Ve Müdahale İçin Sosyal Bilişsel Kurama Dayalı Yeni Bir Model Önerisi

Öz

Cinsiyetçilik uluslararası düzeyde görülen ve olumsuz sonuçları kadına şiddete kadar ulaşabilen bir kavramdır. Bu gözden geçirme çalışmasının amacı cinsiyetçiliği azaltmaya yönelik müdahale çalışmalarında kullanılan farklı yöntemleri ve bu çalışmaların sonuçlarını anlamaya yönelik genel bir çerçeve sunmaktır. Literatürde incelenmiş birçok müdahale çalışması bulunmasına rağmen, sosyal bilişsel kuram (SBK, Bandura, 1986) bu zamana dek cinsiyetçiliği azaltmaya yönelik başarılı müdahale çalışmalarındaki süreci anlamlandırabilmek için yeterli oranda kullanılmamıştır. Bu kuramda kişisel faktörler, davranış kalıpları ve çevresel etkiler etkileşim halindedir. SBK, bireylerin bir konuda değişim sağlayabilmek için öz yeterlik hissettikleri oranda motive olduklarını vurgulamaktadır. Bu bağlamda SBK, müdahale çalışmalarının altında yatan mekanizmayı anlamak için kullanılabilir. Bu çerçevede bu inceleme makalesinde öncelikle cinsiyetçilik ve cinsiyetçiliği azaltmaya yönelik müdahale çalışmaları ile ilgili yazın taranıp sunulacaktır. Ardından SBK temel yönleriyle açıklanacak ve SBK ya dayanılarak cinsiyetçiliği azaltmaya yönelik yeni bir müdahale çalışması modeli sunulacaktır. Tartışma kısmından önce de SBK’nin cinsiyetçiliği azaltmaya yönelik müdahale çalışmalarının altında yatan mekanizmayı anlamak için nasıl kullanılacağı anlatılacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Müdahale Çalışmaları
• Cinsiyetçilik
• Sosyal Bilişsel Kuram

Interventions To Reduce Sexism And A New Model Proposal For Intervention Based On Social Cognitive Theory

Öz

The purpose of this review is to provide a general integrative framework to understand the different ways used in interventions to reduce sexism and the outcomes of these interventions. There are many interventions in the literature however social cognitive theory (SCT, Bandura, 1986) has not been used sufficiently to understand the process in successful interventions conducted on reducing sexism. The implications are discussed in a way to raise awareness about sexism in the group practices with women. Social cognitive theory emphasizes that, people are motivated by their sense of self-efficacy. In this sense, SCT can be used to make sense of the mechanism underlying the interventions to reduce sexism. Within this frame, first I will review the literature about sexism and interventions to reduce sexism. Second, SCT will be briefly defined. Third, I will present how SCT explains underlying mechanisms of interventions for reducing sexism and propose a new model based on SCT.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Interventions
• Sexism
• Social Cognitive Theory

Kaynakça

1. Aronson, E. (1999). The power of self-persuasion. American Psychologist 11, 875-884.
2. Atak, N., Gürkan, T., & Köse, K. (2008). The effect of education on knowledge, self-management behaviors and self-efficacy of patients with Type 2 diabetes. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 26, 66-74.
3. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 91 215.
4. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall, Inc.
5. Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 2(1), 21–41.
6. Bandura, A. (2004). Health promotion by social cognitive means. Health Education & Behavior, 31(2), 143-164.
7. Baranowski, T., Perry, C., L., & Parcel, G., S. (2002). How individuals, environments, and health behavior interact: Social cognitive theory. In Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3rd ed., pp. 165–184 [K Glanz, F., M., Lewis, & B., K., Rimer, editors]. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
8. Becker, J. C., & Swim, J. K. (2011). Seeing the unseen: Attention to daily encounters with sexism as a way to reduce sexist beliefs. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(2), 227-242.

9. Becker, J. C., & Swim, J. K. (2012). Reducing endorsement of benevolent and modern sexist beliefs: Differential effects of addressing harm versus pervasiveness of benevolent sexism. Social Psychology, 43(3), 127-137.
10. Becker, J. C., Zawadzki, M. J., & Shields, S. A. (2014). Confronting and reducing sexism: A call for research on intervention. Journal of Social Issues, 70(4), 603–614.
11. Capezza, N. M., & Arriaga, X. B. (2008). Why do people blame victims of abuse? The role of stereotypes of women on perceptions of blame. Sex Roles, 59(11–12), 839–850.
12. Case, A., K. (2007). Raising male privilege, awareness and reducing sexism: An evaluation of diversity courses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, (4), 426-435.
13. Cundiff, J., Zawadzki, M., Danube, C., & Shields, S. (2014). Using experiential learning to increase the recognition of everyday sexism as harmful: The WAGES intervention. Journal of Social Issues, 70(4), 703-721.
14. de Lemus, S., Ryan, E., Megías, J., Navarro, L., & J. Velásquez, M. (2014). From sex to gender: A university intervention to reduce sexism in Argentina, Spain, and El Salvador. Journal of Social Issues, 70(4), 741-762.
15. Dijkstra, A., & Buunk, A.B. (2008). The help phase: Developing the intervention. In A. P. Buunk, & M. Van Vugt (Eds.), Applying Theories (pp. 105 - 133). London: SAGE Publications Inc..
16. Fawcett, G., Heise, L. L., Isita-Espejel, L., & Pick, S. (1999). Changing community responses to wife abuse: A research and demonstration project in Iztacalco, Mexico. American Psychologist, 54(1), 41-49.
17. Flood, M., & Pease, B. (2009). Factors influencing attitudes to violence against women. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 10(2), 125-142.
18. Glick, P., & Fiske, S., T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating Hostile and Benevolent Sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 491-512.
19. Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2001). An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American Psychologist, 56(2), 109–118.
20. Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J. L., Abrams, D., Masser, B., López, W. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 763–775.
21. Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2000). The role of transportation in the persuasiveness of public narratives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79, 701–721.
22. Hage, S. M. (2000). The role of counseling psychology in preventing male violence against female intimates. Counseling Psychologist, 28(6), 797-828.
23. Jost, J. T., & Kay, A. C. (2005). Exposure to benevolent sexism and complementary gender stereotypes: consequences for specific and diffuse forms of system justification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(3), 498–509.
24. Kahraman, H. (2017). Effects of a sexual health education programme on school psychological counsellor candidates’ sexism tendencies in Turkey. Sex Education, 17(4), 399–412.
25. Kilmartin, C., Semelsberger, R., Dye, S., Boggs, E., & Kolar, D. (2015). A behavior intervention to reduce sexism in college men. Gender Issues 32(2), 97-110.
26. Kilmartin, C., Smith, T., Green, A., Heinzen, H., Kuchler, M., & Kolar, D. (2008). A real time social norms intervention to reduce male sexism. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 59(3-4), 264-273.
27. Lako, D. A. M., Beijersbergen, M. D., Jonker, I. E., de Vet, R., Herman, D. B., van Hemert, A. M., & Wolf, J. R. L. M. (2018). The effectiveness of critical time intervention for abused women leaving women’s shelters: a randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Public Health, 63(4), 513–523.
28. Maibach, E., Flora, J. A., & Nass, C. (1991). Changes in self-efficacy and health behavior in response to a minimal contact community health campaign. Health Communication, 3(1), 1-15.
29. Mays, V. M. (2000). A social justice agenda. American Psychologist, 55, 326–327.
30. McAlister, A. L., Perry, C. L., & Parcel, G. S. (2008). How individuals, environments, and health behaviors interact: Social cognitive theory. In K. Glanz, B. K. Rimer, & K. Viswanath (Eds.), Health behavior and health education: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 169-188). San Francisco, CA, US: Jossey-Bass.
31. Merlin, J. S., Young, S. R., Johnson, M. O., Saag, M., Demonte, W., Kerns, R., Davies, S. (2018). Intervention mapping to develop a social cognitive theory-based intervention for chronic pain tailored to individuals with HIV. Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications, 10, 9–16.
32. Moritz, S. E., Feltz, D. L., Fahrbach, K. R., & Mack, D. E. (2000). The relation of self-efficacy measures to sport performance: a meta-analytic review. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 71(3), 280–294.
33. Moss-Racusin, C. A., Pietri, E. S., Hennes, E. P., Dovidio, J. F., Brescoll, V. L., Roussos, G., & Handelsman, J. (2018). Reducing STEM gender bias with VIDS (video interventions for diversity in STEM). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 24(2), 236-260.
34. National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics. (2017). Women, minorities, and persons with disabilities in science and engineering: 2017.
35. Page, A. Z., & İnce, M. (2008). Aile içi şiddet konusunda bir derleme, Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 11(22), 81-94.
36. Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(5), 751-783.
37. Pratto, F., & Walker, A. (2004). The bases of gendered power. In A. H. Eagly, A. E. Beall & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), the psychology of gender (2nd ed., pp. 242– 268). New York: The Guilford Press.
38. Swim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(2), 199-214.
39. Swim, J. K., & Hyers, L. L. (2009). Sexism. In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination (pp. 407-430). New York, NY, US: Psychology Press.
40. Swim, J. K., Mallett, R., Russo-Devosa, Y., & Stangor, C. (2005). Judgments of sexism: A comparison of the subtlety of sexism measures and sources of variability in judgments of sexism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 406–411.
41. TC Başbakanlık Kadının Statüsü Genel Müdürlüğü, 2009. Türkiye’de kadına yönelik şiddet. Ankara; Elma Teknik Basım Matbaacılık. Retrieved October 18, 2018, from http://www.hips.hacettepe.edu.tr/TKAA2008-AnaRapor.pdf
42. Viki, G. T., & Abrams, D. (2002). But she was unfaithful: Benevolent sexism and reactions to rape victims who violate traditional gender role expectations. Sex Roles, 47(5–6), 289–293.
43. West, J. A., Bandura, A., Clark, M., Miller, N. H., Ahn, D., Greenwald, G., DeBusk, R. F. (1999). Clinical trials/heart failure: Self-Efficacy predicts adherence to dietary sodium limitation in patients with heart failure. Journal of Cardiac Failure, 5 (Supplement 1), 55-66.
44. WHO (2002). World report on violence and health. Retrieved October 18, 2018, from http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/.
45. Yoder, J. D., Mills, A. S., & Raffa, E. R. (2016). An effective intervention in research methods that reduces psychology majors’ sexist prejudices. Teaching of Psychology, 43(3), 187–196.
46. Zawadzki, M., Danube, C., & Shields, S. (2012). How to talk about gender inequity in the workplace: Using WAGES as an experiential learning tool to reduce reactance and promote self-efficacy. Sex Roles, 67(11-12), 605-616.