From Conflict to Peacebuilding: The Case of The Philippines-Moro

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 10 Sayı: 1, 90 - 127, 31.01.2022

İbrahim Kumek

Öz

In the Philippines-Moro conflict, one of the longest-lasting armed conflicts in Southeast Asia, the negotiation process that started in the mid-1970s ended in 2014 with the signing of a comprehensive peace agreement. In this study, starting from the ground presented by the Ripeness Theory, the question of how the final agreement is reached in the peace negotiations process is examined. It is aimed to contribute to the Ripeness Theory, which was developed about when and under what conditions the negotiations can be started, with the conceptualization of the ‘mutually demand balance’. Accordingly, the peace agreement is concluded at the point where the demands of the conflicting parties for the solution of the problem are met at the optimum level. The relationship between demands and identity is revealed, and it is claimed that unmet demands lead to the perception of attack on identity, and therefore conflicts cannot be ended. The focus is on the Philippines-Moro example, as it is an intra-state conflict and an agreed peace process in terms of the demand-territory-identity relationship. In the peace process, the uncompromising attitude of the Philippine governments on the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country against the Moro liberation movements demanding self-determination in the ‘ancestral domain’ caused the continuation of the conflicts; however, it has been determined that the agreement is reached when these demands are met with the ‘extended autonomy’ solution.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Bangsamoro, Philippines-Moro Conflict and Peace Process, Ripeness Theory, Ontological (In)Security

Çatışma Ortamından Barış İnşasına: Filipinler-Moro Örneği

Öz

Güneydoğu Asya’nın en uzun süreli silahlı çatışmalarından biri olan Filipinler-Moro çatışmasında 1970’lerin ortalarında başlayan müzakere süreci, 2014’te kapsamlı barış anlaşmasının imzalanmasıyla nihayete ermiştir. Bu çalışmada, Olgunluk Teorisinin sunduğu zeminden hareketle, barış müzakereleri sürecinde nihai anlaşmaya nasıl varıldığı sorusu araştırılmaktadır. Müzakerelerin ne zaman ve hangi koşullarda başlatılabileceğine dair geliştirilen Olgunluk Teorisine ‘karşılıklı talep dengesi’ kavramsallaştırması ile katkıda bulunmak hedeflenmektedir. Buna göre, bir barış anlaşması çatışan tarafların sorunun çözümüne yönelik taleplerinin optimum düzeyde karşılanma derecesine vardığı noktada yapılmaktadır. Çalışmada, talepler ile kimlik arasındaki ilişki ortaya çıkarılmakta, karşılanamayan taleplerin kimliğe yönelik saldırı algısına yol açtığı, bu nedenle çatışmaların bitirilemediği öne sürülmektedir. Talep-toprak-kimlik ilişkisi açısından devlet içi bir çatışma ve anlaşmaya varılmış bir barış süreci olduğundan Filipinler-Moro örneğine odaklanılmaktadır. Barış sürecinde ‘atalara ait topraklarda’ self-determinasyon talep eden Moro kurtuluş hareketlerine karşı, Filipinler hükümetlerinin ülkenin toprak bütünlüğü ve egemenliği konusunda taviz vermez tutumunun çatışmaların devamlılığına neden olduğu; ancak bu taleplerin ‘genişletilmiş özerklik’ çözümü ile karşılandığı durumda anlaşmanın sağlandığı tespit edilmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Bangsamoro, Olgunluk Teorisi, Ontolojik Güven(siz)lik, Filipinler-Moro Çatışması ve Barış Süreci

Kaynakça

• Abubakar, Carmen A.: “Review of the Mindanao peace processes”, Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, 2004, 5(3), 450-464.
• Abubakar, Ayesah Uy: Peacebuilding and Sustainable Human Development, Cham: Springer Link, 2019.
• Abubakar, Ayesah and Kamarulzaman Askandar: “Mindanao”, Comparing Peace Processes, Ed. by Alpaslan Özerdem and Roger Mac Ginty, New York: Routledge, 2019, pp. 161-178.
• Adam, Jeroen: “A Comparative Analysis on the Micro-level Genealogies of Conflict in the Philippines' Mindanao Island and Indonesia's Ambon Island”, Oxford Development Studies, 2013, 41(2), 155-172.
• Adam, Jeroen: “Genealogies of the colonial present: The rediscovery of the local in conflict management interventions in Mindanao, the Southern Philippines”, Conflict, Security & Development, 2016, 16(5), 387-404.
• Åkebo, Malin: “Ceasefire Rationales: A Comparative Study of Ceasefires in the Moro and Communist Conflicts in the Philippines”, International Peacekeeping, 2020, 1-27.
• Arnson, Cynthia (Ed.): Comparative peace processes in Latin America, Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1999.
• Ball, Nicole and Tammy Halevy: Making peace work: The role of the international development community, Policy Essay No. 18. Washington, DC: Overseas Development Council, 1996.
• Bercovitch, Jacob and Richard Jackson: Conflict resolution in the twenty-first century: Principles, methods, and approaches, University of Michigan Press, 2009.
• Bertrand, Jacques: “Peace and conflict in the Southern Philippines: Why the 1996 peace agreement is fragile”, Pacific Affairs, 2000, 37-54.
• Browning Christopher S. and Pertti Joenniemi: “Ontological Security, Self-Articulation and the Securitization of Identity”, Cooperation and Conflict, 2017, 52(1), 31-47.
• Buendia, Rizal G.: “Looking into the future of Moro self-determination in the Philippines”, Philippine Political Science Journal, 2008, 29(52), 1-24.
• Caballero-Anthony, Mely: “Revisiting the Bangsamoro struggle: Contested identities and elusive peace”, Asian Security, 2007, 3(2), 141-161.
• CIA: “Philippines”, The World FactBook, (Çevrimiçi) https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/philippines/#people-and-society, 2021, (27.05.2021).
• Crocker, Chester A.: High Noon in Southern Africa: Making Peace in a Rough Neighborhood, New York: W.W. Norton, 1992.
• Cutter, Ana: “Peace building: a literature review”, Development in Practice, 2005, 15(6), 778-784.
• Davis, Ian: “Tracking armed conflicts and peace processes in 2017”, SIPRI Yearbook 2018: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, 2018, s. 29-33.
• Galtung, Johan: “Three approaches to peace: Peacekeeping, peacemaking and peacebuilding”, Peace, War and Defence: Essays in Peace Research II, Ed. by Johan Galtung, Copenhagen: Ejlers, 1976, pp. 292-304.
• Giddens, Anthony: Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age, Stanford, CA: Stanford University press, 1991.
• Gowing, Peter Gordon: Mandate in Moroland: The American Government of Muslim Filipinos, 1899-1920, Syracuse University, 1968.
• Gurr, Ted R.: Why Men Rebel, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1970.
• Haass, Richard N.: Conflicts Unending; The United States and Regional Disputes, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990.
• Hilsdon, Anne-Marie: “Invisible Bodies: Gender, conflict and peace in Mindanao”, Asian Studies Review, 2009, 33(3), 349-365.
• Kamlian Jamail A.: “Who are the Moro people?,” 22 Mayıs 2021, (çevrimiçi) https://opinion.inquirer.net/39098/who-are-the-moro-people, October 20, 2012, (26.06.2021).
• Kovács, Balázs Áron.: Peace Infrastructures and State-Building at the Margins, Rethinking Peace and Conflict Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
• Lacar, Luis Q.: “Neglected dimensions in the development of Muslim Mindanao and the continuing struggle of the moro people for self‐ determination”, Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs. Journal, 1988, 9(2), 296-310.
• Laing, Ronald David: The Divided Self: An Existential Study in Sanity and Madness, London: Penguin Classics, 2010.
• Lam, Peng Er: “Japan's peace-building in Mindanao: partnering Malaysia, the Philippines and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front”, Japanese Studies, 2008, 28(1), 45-57.
• Loesch, Juliette: “The GPH-MILF peace process in the Philippines to prevent and transform violent extremism in Mindanao”, Journal of Peacebuilding & Development, 2017, 12(2), 96- 101.
• Mac Ginty, Roger and Alpaslan Özerdem: “Introduction: Why compare peace processes?”, Comparing Peace Processes, Ed. by Alpaslan Özerdem and Roger Mac Ginty, New York: Routledge, 2019, pp. 1-17.
• Mitchell, Christopher R.: Conflict resolution and civil war: Reflections on the Sudanese settlement of 1972, Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, George Mason University, 1989 .
• Mitzen, Jennifer: “Ontological Security in World Politics: State Identity and the Security Dilemma”, European Journal of International Relations, 2006, 12(3), 341–70.
• Niccolo, Ian and Vizcarra Tobia: “Populism, Politics and Peace Processes: Analysing the Nexus Between Peacebuilding and the Philippines’ Populist Politics”, Journal of Peacebuilding & Development, 2018, 13(3), 115-120.
• Ochiai, Naoyuki: “The Mindanao Conflict: Efforts for Building Peace through Development”, Asia-Pacific Review, 2016, 23(2), 37-59.
• Özerdem, Alpaslan: “The contribution of the organisation of the Islamic conference to the peace process in Mindanao”, Civil Wars, 2012, 14(3), 393-413.
• Özerdem, A., S. Podder and E. L. Quitoriano: “Identity, ideology and child soldiering: Community and youth participation in civil conflict–A study on the Moro Islamic Liberation Front in Mindanao, Philippines”, Civil Wars, 2010, 12(3), 304-325.
• Özerdem, Alpaslan and Sukanya Podder: “Grassroots and rebellion: a study on the future of the Moro struggle in Mindanao, Philippines”, Civil Wars, 2012, 14(4), 521-545.
• Panjor, Fareeda and Anchana Heemmina: “Chapter 3: Peace Process and Transitional Justice: The Comparative Study of Mindanao, Colombia, and Thailand’s Deep South”, Asian Affairs: An American Review, 2018, 45(2), 78-97.
• Plank, Friedrich: “Not enough pieces of the cake? The Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) in the Mindanao final agreement”, Asian Security, 2015, 11(2), 154-177.
• Podder, Sukanya: “Legitimacy, loyalty and civilian support for the Moro Islamic Liberation Front: changing dynamics in Mindanao, Philippines”, Politics, Religion & Ideology, 2012, 13(4), 495-512.
• Podszun Lucie: “The Theory of Ripeness”, Does Development Aid Affect Conflict Ripeness?, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. 2011.
• Reyes, Celia M., C. D. Mina, and R. D. Asis: Inequality of opportunities among ethnic groups in the Philippines (No. 2017-42), PIDS Discussion Paper Series, 2017, https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/PUBLICATIONS/pidsdps1742.pdf (13.07.2021).
• Rumelili, Bahar (Ed.): Conflict Resolution and Ontological Security, Abingdon: Routledge, 2015.
• Sombatpoonsiri, Janjira, “Securing Peace? Regime Types and Security Sector Reform in the Patani (Thailand) and Bangsamoro (the Philippines) Peace Processes, 2011–2016”, Strategic Analysis, 2018, 42(4), 377-401.
• South, Ashley and Christopher M. Joll: “From rebels to rulers: The challenges of transition for non-state armed groups in Mindanao and Myanmar”, Critical Asian Studies, 2016, 48(2), 168-192.
• Stedman, Stephen John: Peacemaking in civil war: International mediation in Zimbabwe, 1974- 1980, Boulder, CO: L. Rienner Publishers, 1991.
• Steele, Brent J.: Ontological Security in International Relations: Self-Identity and the IR State, London: Routledge, 2008.
• Tadem, Teresa E.: “Moro and Basque Nationalism and the Limitations of “Liberal Democracy””, Journal of Comparative Asian Development, 2014, 13(2), 212-241.
• UN Peacebuilding Support Office: UN Peacebuilding: An Orientation, Ed. by United Nations, http://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/pbso/pdf/ peacebuilding_orientation.pdf, 2010, (13.07.2021).
• UNSG: An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-Keeping, New York: United Nations, 1992, https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/files/A_47_277.pdf (13.07.2021)
• Zartman, I. William: Ripe for Resolution: Conflict and Intervention in Africa, New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
• Zartman, I. William: “Ripeness: The hurting stalemate and beyond”, International Conflict Resolution After the Cold War, Ed. by P. Stern & D. Druckman, Washington: National Academy Press, 2000, pp. 225-250.
• Zartman, I. William: “The timing of peace initiatives: Hurting stalemates and ripe moments”, The Global Review of Ethnopolitics, 2001, 1(1), 8-18.
• Zartman, I. William, “Mediation: Ripeness and its Challengesin the Middle East”, International Negotiation, 2015, 20(3), 479-493.
• Zartman, I. William and Álvaro de Soto: Timing Mediation Initiatives, Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2010.
• “Jeddah Accord (Government of the Republic of the Philippines-Moro National Liberation Front) (3-4 January 1987)”, (Çevrimiçi) https://peacemaker.un.org/sites/peacemaker.un.org/files/PH_870104_The%20Jeddah %20Accord.pdf, 1987, (03.06.2021).
• “Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro (The Philippine Government-Moro Islamic Liberation Front), (15 October 2012)”, (Çevrimiçi) https://peacemaker.un.org/sites/peacemaker.un.org/files/PH_121015_FrameworkAgre ementBangsamoro.pdf, 2012, (03.06.2021).
• “Memorandum of Agreement on the Ancestral Domain Aspect of the GRP-MILF Tripoli Agreement on Peace of 2001, (27 July 2008)”, (Çevrimiçi) https://peacemaker.un.org/sites/peacemaker.un.org/files/PH_080805_Memorandum% 20on%20the%20ancestral%20domains.pdf, 2008, (03.06.2021).
• “The Comprehensive Agreement on Bangsamoro (CAB) (Government of the Republic of the Philippines-Moro National Liberation Front) (23 March 2014)”, (Çevrimiçi) https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/downloads/2014/03mar/20140327- Comprehensive-Agreement-on-the-Bangsamoro.pdf, 2014, (03.06.2021).
• “The Final Peace Agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front (Government of the Republic of the Philippines-Moro National Liberation Front) (2 September 1996)”, (Çevrimiçi) http://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/phil16.pdf,%20eri%C5%9Fim:%2003.06.2021, 1996, (03.06.2021).
• “The Tripoli Agreement (Government of the Republic of the Philippines-Moro National Liberation Front) (23 December 1976)”, (Çevrimiçi) https://peacemaker.un.org/sites/peacemaker.un.org/files/PH_761223_Tripoli%20Agre ement.pdf, 1976, (03.06.2021).