Critical Race Theory and The Legal Construction Of Race

Yıl 2023, Sayı: 2, 229 - 268, 31.07.2023

Fatma Süzgün Şahin

https://doi.org/10.33432/ybuhukuk.1274595

Öz

The Critical Race Theory, which emerged under the specific historical conditions of the American society and the American legal system, is based on the theses that race is constructed and shaped by the law and that racism is not the exception but the norm in American society and American institutions, including the seemingly neutral judiciary, demonstrating that solutions to the problems of race and racism are in fact not simple. The movement demonstrates that all major breakthroughs towards equality in the United States could only be realized when they were also suitable for the interests of the white elites. The Critical Race Theory criticizes the existing legal system and precedents on the basis that the law is not impartial and aims to draw attention to the role of race in law. In this study, the emergence of Critical Race Theory, the effects of which can only be seen indirectly on Continental European legal thought, its main tenets, the methodological innovations it brings with its counter-storytelling and its relations with other critical approaches will be outlined in general terms, the aspects of the Theory that can influence theoretical and empirical studies will be pointed out, and finally, it will be evaluated whether it is possible to make a meaningful contribution to socio-legal studies outside the United States.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Racial Segregation, Interest Convergence, Intersectionality, Counter-Storytelling, Color-Blind Constitutionalism, Internal Colonialism.

Eleştirel Irk Kuramı ve Irkın Hukuk Tarafından Belirlenmesi

Öz

Amerikan toplumunun ve hukuk sisteminin kendine özgü tarihsel koşulları altında ortaya çıkan Eleştirel Irk Kuramı ırkın hukuk tarafından da inşa edilip şekillendirildiği ve Amerikan toplumunda ve ilk bakışta tarafsız görünen yargı da dahil olmak üzere Amerikan kurumlarında ırkçılığın bir istisna değil aksine toplumun normali olduğu tezlerinden hareketle ırk ve ırkçılık sorunlarının çözümlerinin gerçekte hiç de kolay olmadığını gözler önüne sermektedir. Hareketin tespitine göre Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nde eşitlik yolundaki tüm önemli atılımlar ancak beyaz elitlerin çıkarları için de uygun oldukları zaman hayata geçirilebilmiştir. Eleştirel Irk Kuramı, mevcut hukuk sistemini ve yargı kararlarını hukukun tarafsız olmadığı tespitinden hareketle eleştirir ve hukukta ırkın oynadığı role dikkat çekmeyi amaçlar. Bu çalışmada Kıta Avrupası hukuk düşüncesinde etkileri ancak dolaylı şekilde görülen Eleştirel Irk Kuramı’nın ortaya çıkışı, temel özellikleri, karşıt öykü anlatıcılığıyla getirdiği metodolojik yenilikler ve başka eleştirel yaklaşımlarla ilişkileri genel hatlarıyla tasvir edilecek, Kuramın teorik ve ampirik çalışmalara etki edebilecek yönlerine dikkat çekilmeye çalışılacak ve nihayet Amerika Birleşik Devletleri dışında da sosyo-hukuki çalışmalara anlamlı bir katkısının mümkün olup olmadığı değerlendirilecektir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Irk Ayrımı, Çıkarların Ortaklaşması, Kesişimsellik, Karşıt Öykü Anlatıcılığı, Renk Körü Anayasacılık, İç Sömürgecilik

Kaynakça

• Adams, Bella (2016) “Critical Race Theory”, Sim, Stuart (editör) The Edinburgh Companion to Critical Theory, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, s.213-229.
• Akman, Şefik Taylan (2012) “Hukuk Politika İlişkisi Bakımından Eleştirel Hukuk Çalışmaları Hareketi”, Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, C:61, S:4, s.1271-1306.
• Armani Da Silva - Birleşik Krallık, Avrupa İnsan Hakları Mahkemesi, Başvuru No. 5878/08, K.T. 30.03.2016.
• Barrera, Mario (1979) Race and Class in the Southwest: A Theory of Racial Inequality Indiana, University of Notre Dame Press.
• Bell Jr, Derrick A. (1979) “Bakke, Minority Admissions, and the Usual Price of Racial Remedies”, California Law Review C:67, S:1, s.3-19.
• Bell Jr, Derrick A. (1980) “Brown v. Board of Education and the interest-convergence dilemma”, Harvard Law Review, C:93, S:3, s.518-533.
• Bell Jr, Derrick A. (2004) Silent Covenants: Brown V. Board of Education and the Unfulfilled Hopes for Racial Reform, United States, Oxford University Press.
• Bell Jr, Derrick A. (2005) “The Unintended Lessons in Brown v. Board of Education”, NYLS Law Review C:49, S:4, s.1053-1067.
• Bell Jr, Derrick A. (2013) “After We’re Gone: Prudent Speculations on America in a Postracial Epoch”: Stefancic, Jean/Delgado, Richard (editörler) Critical Race Theory: The Cutting Edge, Philadelphia, Temple University Press.
• Bernasconi, Robert (2017) “Critical Philosophy of Race and Philosophical Historiography”: Taylor, Paul C./ Alcoff, Linda Martin/ Luvell, Anderson (editörler), The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Race, New York, Routledge, s.3-13.
• Bickel, Alexander M. (1978), The Supreme Court and the Idea of Progress, USA, Yale University Press.
• Blauner, Robert (1972) Racial Oppression in America, New York, HarperCollins College Division.
• BMMYK (2018) “UNHCR Policy on Age Gender and Diversity”, s.5,19, <https://www.unhcr.org/media/policy-age-gender-and-diversity-accountability-2018> s.e.t. 1.05.2023.
• Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo (2001) White Supremacy and Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era, Londra, Lynne Rienner Publishers.
• Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo (2015) “More Than Prejudice: Restatement, Reflections, and New Directions in Critical Race Theory”, Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, C:1, S:1, s.74; Bonilla-Silva (2001) s.73-87.
• Carby, Hazel V. (1985) ““On the Threshold of Woman’s Era”: Lynching, Empire, and Sexuality in Black Feminist Theory”, Critical Inquiry, C:12, S:1, s.262-277.
• Chang, Robert S. (2002) “Critiquing ‘Race’ and Its Uses: Critical Race Theory’s Uncompleted Argument”: Valdes, Francisco/ McCristal Culp, Jerome/Harris, Angela P. (editörler), Crossroads, Directions and a New Critical Race Theory, Philadelphia, Temple University Press.
• Cole, Mike (2020) “A Marxist Critique of Sean Walton’s Defence of the Critical Race Theory Concept of ‘White Supremacy’ as Explaining All Forms of Racism, and Some Comments on Critical Race Theory, Black Radical and Socialist Futures”, Power and Education, C:12, S:1, s.95-109.
• Cooper, Anna J. (1998) The voice of Anna Julia Cooper: Including a Voice From the South and Other Important Essays, Papers, and Letters, Lemert, Charles/ Bhan, Esme (Editörler), Maryland, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
• Crenshaw, Kimberle (1989) “Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics”, University of Chicago Legal Forum, S:1, s.139-167.
• Crenshaw, Kimberle Williams, (2002) “The First Decade: Critical Reflections, or ‘A Foot in the Closing Door’”, Valdes, Francisco/ McCristal Culp, Jerome/Harris, Angela P. (editörler), Crossroads, Directions and a New Critical Race Theory, Philadelphia, Temple University Press.
• Crenshaw, Kimberle/Gotanda, Neil/Peller, Gary/Kendall, Thomas (Editörler) (1995) Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That Formed the Movement, New York, The New Press.
• Cummings, André Douglas Pond (2013) “A Furious Kinship: Critical Race Theory and the Hip Hop Nation “, Stefancic, Jean/Delgado, Richard (editörler) Critical Race Theory: The Cutting Edge, Philadelphia, Temple University Press, s.107-119.
• Dalton, Harlon L. (1987) “The Clouded Prism”, Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, C:22, s.435,447.
• Davis, Thomas J. (2021) “Irk, Kimlik, Ulus: Plessy v. Ferguson”, Gordon-Reed, Annette (Editör) Irkı Mahkemeye Çıkarmak: Amerika Tarihinde Hukuk ve Adalet, (Çeviren: Ertuğrul Uzun), İstanbul, Zoe Kitap, s.86-107.
• Delgado, Richard (1992) “Imperial Scholar Revisited: How to Marginalize Outsider Writing, Ten Years Later”, University of Pennsylvania Law Review C:140, S:4, s.1349-72.
• Delgado, Richard (1984) “Imperial Scholar: Reflections on a Review of Civil Rights Literature “, University of Pennsylvania Law Review C:132, S:3, s.561-578.
• Delgado, Richard (1987) “The Ethereal Scholar: Does Critical Legal Studies Have What Minorities Want”, Harv. CR-CLL Rev. C:22, s.301-322.
• Delgado, Richard (1989) “Storytelling for Oppositionists and Others: A Plea for Narrative”, Michigan Law Review C:87, S:8, s.2411-2441.
• Delgado, Richard (2013) “Liberal McCarthyism and the Origins of Critical Race Theory”: Stefancic, Jean/Delgado, Richard (editörler) Critical Race Theory: The Cutting Edge, Philadelphia, Temple University Press.
• Delgado, Richard /Stefancic, Jean (2017) Critical Race Theory, USA, New York University Press.
• Dennis v. United States, Supreme Court of the United States, No. 341 US 494 (1951), K.T. 04.06.1951.
• Di Donato, Flora (2020) The Analysis of Legal Cases: A Narrative Approach, Oxon, Routledge.
• Donnor, Jamel K. (2016) “Derrick Bell, Brown, and the Continuing Significance of the Interest- Convergence Principle”: Ladson-Billings/Gloria, Tate/William F. (editörler), Covenant Keeper: Derrick Bell’s Enduring Education Legacy, New York, Peter Lang.
• Dudziak Mary L. (2004) “Brown as a Cold War case”, The Journal of American History, C:91, S:1, s.32-42.
• Duxbury, Neil (1995) Patterns of American jurisprudence, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Edley, Christopher F. Jr. (1996) Not All Black and White: Affirmative Action, Race, And American Values, New York, Hill and Wang.
• Executive Office of the President, “Combating Race and Sex Stereotyping” <https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2020/09/28/2020-21534/combatingrace- and-sex-stereotyping> s.e.t. 10.02.2023.
• Executive Office of the President, “Executive Order on Advancing Racial Equity and Support for Underserved Communities Through the Federal Government”, 20 Ocak 2021, <https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/01/20/executiveorder- advancing-racial-equity-and-support-for-underserved-communities-through-thefederal- government/> s.e.t. 10.03.2023.
• Fanon, Frantz (2007) Black Skin, White Masks. New York, Grove Press (Çeviren: Philcox, Ricgard).
• Fenelon, James V. (2016) “Critique of Glenn on Settler Colonialism and Bonilla-Silva on Critical Race Analysis From Indigenous Perspectives”, Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, C:2, S:2, s.237-242.
• Freire, Paulo (2000) Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 30th Anniversary Edition, New York, Continuum, (Çeviren: Ramos, Myra Bergman).
• Gayle v. Browder, Supreme Court of the United States, No. 352 U.S. 903 (1956), K.T. 13 Kasım 1956.
• Gillborn, David (2008) Racism and Education: Coincidence or Conspiracy?, Abingdon, Routledge.
• Gómez, Laura E. (2022) “İki Türün Öyküsü: Hukuk ve Toplum Disiplini ile Eleştirel Irk Teorisi Arasındaki Gerçek ve İdeal Bağlar Üzerine”: Sarat, Austin (editör), Hukuk ve Toplum El Kitabı (çeviren: Ünver, Serdar), İzmir, Islık Yayınları.
• Gordon, Robert W., (2006) “Bazı Eleştirel Hukuk Teorilerinin Eleştirisi”, (çev. Gölbaşı, Serkan) İstanbul Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Mecmuası, C:64, S:2, s.387-409.
• Gotanda, Neil (2013) “A Critique of ‘Our Constitution is Color-Blind’”: Stefancic, Jean/Delgado, Richard (editörler) Critical Race Theory: The Cutting Edge, Philadelphia, Temple University Press.
• Hayman, Robert L./Levit, Nancy (2002) “Un-Natural Things: Constructions of Race, Gender, and Disability”: Valdes, Francisco/ McCristal Culp, Jerome/Harris, Angela P. (editörler), Crossroads, Directions and a New Critical Race Theory, Philadelphia, Temple University Press.
• Home Office (2020) Police Powers and Procedures, England and Wales, year ending 31 Mart 2020 - Second Edition, <https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government /uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/935355/police-powers-proceduresmar20- hosb3120.pdf> s.e.t.26.03.2023.
• Kennedy, Randall L. (1989) “Racial Critiques of Legal Academia.”, Harvard Law Review C:102, S:8, s.1745-1819.
• Lawrence III, Charles R. (2002) “Foreword: Who are We? And Why are We Here? Doing Critical Race Theory in Hard Times”: Valdes, Francisco/ McCristal Culp, Jerome/ Harris, Angela P. (editörler), Crossroads, Directions and a New Critical Race Theory, Philadelphia, Temple University Press.
• Long, Lisa J. (2018), Perpetual Suspects: A Critical Race Theory of Black and Mixed- Race Experiences of Policing, Cham, Palgrave Macmillan.
• Martinez, Aja Y. (2022) Counterstory : The Rhetoric and Writing of Critical Race Theory, Studies in Writing and Rhetoric, Champaign, Illinois, National Council of Teachers of English [NCTE].
• Miller, Loren (1966) The Petitioners: The Story of the Supreme Court of the United States and the Negro, New York, Pantheon Books.
• Mills, Charles W. (2009) “Critical Race Theory, A reply to Mike Cole”, Ethnicities, C:9, S:2, s.270-281.
• Mirza, Qudsia, (1999) “Patricia Williams: Inflecting Critical Race Theory”, Feminist Legal Studies C:7, S:2, s.111-132.
• Omi, Michael/Winant, Howard (1993) “On the Theoretical Status of the Concept of Race”: McCarthy, Cameron/Crichlow, Warren/Dimitriadis, Greg/Dolby, Nadine (Editörler), Race, Identity and Representation in Education, New York, Routledge. Pinderhughes, Charles (2010) “How Black Awakening in Capitalist America Laid the Foundation for a New Internal Colonialism Theory”, The Black Scholar, C:40, S:2, s.71-78.
• Plessy v. Ferguson, Supreme Court of the United States, 163 U.S. (1896) 537, K.T. 18.05.1896.
• Said, Edward W., (1997) Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World, New York, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
• Sigle-Rushton, Wendy (2014) “Essentially quantified? Towards a More Feminist Modeling Strategy”, Evans, Mary/ Hemmings, Clare/ Henry, Marsha/ Johnstone, Hazel/ Madhok, Sumi/ Plomien, Ania/ Wearing, Sadie (Editörler), The Sage Handbook of Feminist Theory, Londra, Sage Publications, s.431-445.
• Tushnet, Mark (2021) “Brown v. Eğitim Kurulu Davası”, Gordon-Reed, Annette (Editör) Irkı Mahkemeye Çıkarmak: Amerika Tarihinde Hukuk ve Adalet, (Çeviren: Ertuğrul Uzun), İstanbul, Zoe Kitap, s.209-231.
• U.S. Government Accountability Office (2022) “K-12 Education: Student Population Has Significantly Diversified, but Many Schools Remain Divided Along Racial, Ethnic, and Economic Line”, <https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-22-104737.pdf> s.e.t. 10.03.2023.
• Ünver, Serdar (2022) Negatif Din Özgürlüğü, Ankara: Astana Yayınları.
• Valdes, Francisco/ McCristal Culp, Jerome/ Harris, Angela P. (2002) “Battles Waged, Won, and Lost: Critical Race Theory at the Turn of the Millennium”, Valdes, Francisco/ McCristal Culp, Jerome/Harris, Angela P. (editörler), Crossroads, Directions and a New Critical Race Theory, Philadelphia, Temple University Press.
• Winddance Twine, France (2001) “Transgressive Women and Transracial Mothers: White Women and Critical Race Theory”, Meridians: Feminism, Race, Transnationalism, C:1, S:2, s.130-153.
• Wiener, John (1991) Professors, Politics and Pop, Londra, Verso Books.