Evaluation of Anticancer Effect Mechanisms of Essential Oils and Their Components

Abstract

Researching natural herbal products as new active ingredients as anticancer agents is one of the rapidly progressing and attracting research topics today. In recent years, the number of studies evaluating the effects of essential oils in cancer treatment has significantly increased and gained momentum. Essential oil components include monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, oxygenated monoterpenes, oxygenated sesquiterpenes, and phenolic compounds. In this review, studies showing which cellular action mechanisms of essential oils and their components in different cancer cells can be used as anticancer agents are mentioned. Studies have shown that essential oils and their components exhibit antiproliferative activity by directing cancer cells to apoptosis, arresting the cell cycle, showing antimetastatic and antiangiogenic effects, increasing the amount of reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) and stimulating DNA repair mechanisms. Studies have shown that essential oil and its components also affect the activities of detoxification enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase.

Keywords

• Anticancer Mechanisms
• Essential Oils
• Detoxification Enzymes
• Apoptosis
• Cell Cycle Arrest

Uçucu Yağların ve Bileşenlerinin Antikanser Etki Mekanizmalarının Değerlendirilmesi

Abstract

Antikanser ajan olarak yeni etken madde olarak doğal bitkisel ürünlerin araştırılması günümüzde çok hızlı ilerleyen ve oldukça dikkat çeken araştırma konularından biridir. Son yıllarda, uçucu yağların kanser tedavisindeki etkilerini değerlendiren çalışmaların sayısı önemli ölçüde artmış ve hız kazanmıştır. Uçucu yağ bileşenleri arasında monoterpenler, seskiterpenler, oksijenli monoterpenler, oksijenli seskiterpenler ve fenolikler bileşikler yer almaktadır. Bu derlemede farklı kanser hücrelerindeki uçucu yağların ve bileşenlerinin hangi hücresel etki mekanizmaları kullanarak antikanser ajan olarak değerlendirilebileceğini gösteren çalışmalara değinilmiştir. Uçucu yağlar ve bileşenlerinin kanser hücrelerini apoptoza yönlendirerek, hücre döngüsünü duraksatarak, antimetastatik ve antianjiyogenik etki göstererek, reaktif oksijen türlerinin ve reaktif azot türlerinin (ROT/RNS) miktarını arttırarak ve DNA tamir mekanizmalarını uyararak antiproliferatif aktivite gösterdikleri yapılan çalışmalar ile ortaya konmuştur. Uçucu yağ ve bileşenlerinin Süperoksit dismutaz (SOD), katalaz, glutatyon peroksidaz ve glutatyon reduktaz gibi detoksifikasyon enzimlerinin aktiviteleri üzerinde de etki gösterdikleri yapılan çalışmalarla gösterilmiştir.

Keywords

• Antikanser Mekanizmalar
• Uçucu Yağlar
• Detoksifikasyon Enzimleri
• Apoptoz
• Hücre Döngüsünün Durdurulması

References

1. Reddy, L., Odhav, B., & Bhoola, K. (2003). Natural products for cancer prevention: A global perspective. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 99, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0163-7258(03)00042-1.
2. Marino, P., Mininni, M., Deiana, G., Marino, G., Divella, R., Bochicchio, I., Giuliano, A., Lapadula, S., Lettini, A.C., & Sanseverino, F. (2024). Healthy lifestyle and cancer risk: modifiable risk factors to prevent cancer. Nutrients, 16, 800. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16060800.
3. Surh, Y.J. (2003). Cancer chemoprevention with dietary phytochemicals. Nature Reviews Cancer, 3, 768-780. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc1189.
4. Luk, J.M., Wang, X., Liu, P., Wong, K.F., Chan, K.L., Tong, Y., Hui, C.K., Lau, G.K., & Fan, S.T. (2007). Traditional Chinese herbal medicines for treatment of liver fibrosis and cancer: from laboratory discovery to clinical evaluation. Liver International, 27, 879-890. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-3231.2007.01527.x.
5. Bahrami, H. (2024). Interpreting Cancer Incidence Rates and Trends: A review of control factors and worldwide statistics. Journal of Cancer Research and Practice, 11, 7-17. https://doi.org/10.4103/ejcrp.ejcrp-d-23-00046.
6. Ferlay, J., Soerjomataram, I., Ervik, M., Dikshit, R., Eser, S., & Mathers, C. (2013). GLOBOCAN 2012 v1.0, cancer incidence and mortality worldwide: IARC cancer base no. 11 [Internet]. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon. International Agency for Research on Cancer.
7. Ferlay, J., Shin, H.R., Bray, F., Forman, D., Mathers, C., & Parkin, D.M. (2010). Estimates of worldwide burden of cancer in 2008: GLOBOCAN 2008. International Journal of Cancer, 27, 2893-2917. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.25516.
8. G´omez, R.C., De Castro, C.J., & Gonz´alez, B.M. (2007). Causes of lung cancer: smoking, environmental tobacco smoke exposure, occupationaland environmental exposures and genetic predisposition. Medicina Clínica, 128, 390-396. https://doi.org/10.1157/13099973.

9. Tabor, E. (2007). Pathogenesis of hepatitis B virus-associated hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology Research, 37, S110-S114. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1872-034X.2007.00172.x.
10. Song, P., Gao, Z., Bao, Y., Chen, L., Huang, Y., Liu, Y., Dong, Q., & Wei, X. (2024). Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in carcinogenesis and cancer therapy. Journal of Hematology & Oncology, 17, 46. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13045-024-01563-4.
11. Poulsen, H.E., Prieme, H., & Loft, S. (1998). Role of oxidative DNA damage in cancer initiation and promotion. European Journal of Cancer Prevention, 7, 9-16. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45074324.
12. Kaur, G., Rani, L., Sood, P., Sharma, V.K., Mittal, N., Devi, S., & Singh, T.G. (2025). Introduction to Free Radicals. Role of Free Radicals in Pathology, 1-29. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003560579-1.
13. National Cancer Institute, “Cancer Topics: Environment,” (2013). http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/environment/AllPages.
14. Kim, J., Harper, A., McCormack, V., Sung, H., Houssami, N., Morgan, E., Mutebi, M., Garvey, G., Soerjomataram, I., & Fidler-Benaoudia, M.M. (2025). Global patterns and trends in breast cancer incidence and mortality across 185 countries. Nature Medicine, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-025-03502-3.
15. Nooter, K., & Herweijer, H. (1991). Multidrug resistance (mdr) genes in human cancer. British Journal of Cancer, 63, 663-669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2003.09.047.
16. To, K.K., Huang, Z., Zhang, H., Ashby Jr, C.R., & Fu, L. (2024). Utilizing non-coding RNA-mediated regulation of ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters to overcome multidrug resistance to cancer chemotherapy. Drug Resistance Updates, 73, 101058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drup.2024.101058.
17. Cai, Y., Luo, Q., Sun, M., & Corke H. (2004). Antioxidant activity and phenoliccompounds of 112 traditional Chinese medicinal plants associated with anticancer. Life Sciences, 74, 2157-2184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2003.09.047.
18. Claro, A. E., Palanza, C., Mazza, M., Schuenemann, G. E. U. M., Rigoni, M., Pontecorvi, A., Janiri, L., Pitocco, D., & Muti, P. (2024). Historical use of medicinal plants and future potential from phytotherapy to phytochemicals. Annali di Botanica, 14, 127-170. https://doi.org/10.13133/2239-3129/18564.
19. Albahri, G., Badran, A., Abdel Baki, Z., Alame, M., Hijazi, A., Daou, A., & Baydoun, E. (2024). Potential anti-tumorigenic properties of diverse medicinal plants against the majority of common types of cancer. Pharmaceuticals, 17, 574. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17050574.
20. Mukherjee, P.K. (2003). Exploring botanicals in Indian system of medicine-regulatory perspectives. Clinical Research and Regulatory Affairs, 20, 249-264. https://doi.org/10.1081/CRP-120023840.
21. Gach-Janczak, K., Drogosz-Stachowicz, J., Janecka, A., Wtorek, K., & Mirowski, M. (2024). Historical perspective and current trends in anticancer drug development. Cancers, 16, 1878. https:// doi.org/10.3390/cancers16101878.
22. Sharifi-Rad, J., Ozleyen, A., Boyunegmez Tumer, T., Oluwaseun Adetunji, C., El Omari, N., Balahbib, A., Taheri, Y., Bouyahya, A., Martorell, M., Martins, N., & Cho, W.C. (2019). Natural products and synthetic analogs as a source of antitumor drugs. Biomolecules, 9, 679. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom9110679.
23. Mitoshi, M., Kuriyama, I., Nakayama, H., Miyazato, H., Sugimoto, K., Kobayashi, Y., Jippo, T., Kanazawa, K., Yoshida, H., & Mizushina, Y. (2012). Effects of essential oils from herbal plants and citrus fruits on DNA polymerase inhibitory, cancer cell growth inhibitory, antiallergic, and antioxidant activities. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60, 11343-11350. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf303377f.
24. Sharma, V., Kumar, D., Dev, K., & Sourirajan, A. (2023). Anticancer activity of essential oils: Cell cycle perspective. South African Journal of Botany, 157, 641-647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2023.04.031.
25. Mohamed Abdoul-Latif, F., Ainane, A., Houmed Aboubaker, I., Mohamed, J., & Ainane, T. (2023). Exploring the potent anticancer activity of essential oils and their bioactive compounds: Mechanisms and prospects for future cancer therapy. Pharmaceuticals, 16, 1086. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph16081086.
26. National Cancer Institute, “Aromatherapy and Essential Oils (PDQ),” http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/aromatherapy/healthprofessional
27. Greenwald, P. (1996). Chemoprevention of cancer. Scientific American, 275, 96-99. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24993353.
28. Singla, R. K., Wang, X., Gundamaraju, R., Joon, S., Tsagkaris, C., Behzad, S., Khan, J., Gautam, R., Goyal, R., Rakmai, J., Dubey, A.K., Simal-Gandara, J., & Shen, B. (2023). Natural products derived from medicinal plants and microbes might act as a game-changer in breast cancer: A comprehensive review of preclinical and clinical studies. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 63, 11880-11924. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2022.2097196.
29. Rudzińska, A., Juchaniuk, P., Oberda, J., Wiśniewska, J., Wojdan, W., Szklener, K., & Mańdziuk, S. (2023). Phytochemicals in cancer treatment and cancer prevention-review on epidemiological data and clinical trials. Nutrients, 15, 1896. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15081896.
30. Pezantes-Orellana, C., German Bermúdez, F., Matías De la Cruz, C., Montalvo, J.L., & Orellana-Manzano, A. (2024). Essential oils: a systematic review on revolutionizing health, nutrition, and omics for optimal well-being. Frontiers in Medicine, 11, 1337785. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2024.1337785.
31. Etri, K., & Pluhár, Z. (2024). Exploring chemical variability in the essential oils of the Thymus Genus. Plants, 13, 1375. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13101375.
32. Tepe, B., Donmez, E., Unlu, M., Candan, F., Daferera, D., Vardar-Unlu, G., Polissiou, M., & Sokmen A. (2004). Antimicrobial and antioxidative activities of the essential oils and methanol extracts of Salvia cryptantha (Montbret et Aucher ex Benth.) and Salvia multicaulis (Vahl). Food Chemistry, 84, 519-525. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(03)00267-X.
33. Do Vale, T.G., Furtado, E.C., Santos, Jr J.G., & Viana G.S.B. (2002). Central effects of citral, myrcene and limonene, constituents of essential oil chemotypes from Lippia alba (Mill.) NE Brown. Phytomedicine, 9, 709-714. https://doi.org/10.1078/094471102321621304.
34. Ripple, G.H., Gould, M.N., Stewart, J.A., Tutsch, K.D., Arzoomanian, R.Z., Alberti, D., Feierabend, C., Pomplun, M., Wilding, G., & Bailey, H.H. (1998). Phase I clinical trial of perillyl alcohol administered daily. Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research, 4, 1159-1164.
35. Bailey, H.H., Levy, D., Harris, L.S., Schink, J.C., Foss, F., Beatty, P., & Wadler, S. (2002). A phase II trial of daily perillyl alcohol in patients with advanced ovarian cancer: Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Study E2E96. Gynecologic Oncology, 85, 464-468. https://doi.org/10.1006/gyno.2002.6647.
36. Pimentel, L.S., Bastos, L.M., Goulart, L.R., & Ribeiro, L.N.D.M. (2024). Therapeutic effects of essential oils and their bioactive compounds on prostate cancer treatment. Pharmaceutics, 16, 583. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16050583.
37. Volpe‐Fix, A.R., da Silva Sales, F., Caperuto, L.C., Lago, J.H.G., & Machado‐Jr, J. (2025). Essential oil extracted from Lippia sidoides Cham.(Verbenaceae) induces cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and antimigratory effects in melanoma cells. Chemistry & Biodiversity, 22, e202401530. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.202401530.
38. Frank, M.B., Yang, Q., Osban, J., Azzarello, J.T., Saban, M.R., Saban, R., Ashley R.A., Welter, J.C., Fung K.M., & Lin, H.K. (2009). Frankincense oil derived from Boswellia carteri induces tumor cell specific cytotoxicity. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 9, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-9-6.
39. Cha, J.D., Kim, Y.H., & Kim, J.Y. (2010). Essential oil and 1, 8-cineole from Artemisia lavandulaefolia induces apoptosis in KB cells via mitochondrial stress and caspase activation. Food Science and Biotechnology, 19, 185-191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-010-0025-y.
40. Agrawal, M., Saxena, A.K., & Agrawal, S.K. (2025). Essential oil from Ocimum carnosum induces ROS mediated mitochondrial dysfunction and intrinsic apoptosis in HL-60 cells. Toxicology in Vitro, 104, 105988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tiv.2024.105988.
41. de Andrade, C.C.N., de Oliveira Lopes, A.L., Sousa Duarte, S., Assunção Araújo de Azevedo, F.D.L., Araújo Loureiro, P.B., Wanderley Amorim, G.M., de Abreu Junior A.R., da Silva M.S., Tavares, J.F., dos Santos Golzio S., Ramos Gonçalves, J.C., & Vieira Sobral, M. (2025). Potential in vitro antimelanoma effect of the essential oil from Croton grewioides Baill. Chemistry & Biodiversity, 22, e202401867. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.202401867.
42. Saini, D., Chaudhary, P. K., Chaudhary, J. K., Kaur, H., Verma, G. K., Pramanik, S. D., Roy, P., Mirza-Sharif, A.A., & Prasad, R. (2024). Molecular mechanisms of antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects of essential oil active constituents in MCF7 and T24 cancer cell lines: in vitro insights and in silico modelling of proapoptotic gene product-compound interactions. Apoptosis, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10495-024-02065-x.
43. Legault, J., Dahl, W., Debiton, E., Pichette, A., & Madelmont, J.C. (2003). Antitumor activity of balsam fir oil: Production of reactive oxygen species induced by α-humulene as possible mechanism of action. Planta Medica, 69, 402-407.
44. Chen, X., Shang, S., Yan, F., Jiang, H., Zhao, G., Tian, S., Chen, R., Chen, D., Dang, Y. (2023). Antioxidant activities of essential oils and their major components in scavenging free radicals, inhibiting lipid oxidation and reducing cellular oxidative stress. Molecules, 28, 4559. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28114559.
45. Stadler, R.H., Markovic, J., & Turesky, R.J. (1995). In vitro anti-and pro-oxidative effects of natural polyphenols. Biological Trace Element Research, 47, 299-305. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02790130.
46. Sun, M., Miao, J., Zhang, Y., Hao, Y., Zhang, J., Li, H., Bai, H., & Shi, L. (2025). Antioxidant activity analysis of new interspecific hybrid germplasm thyme and oregano essential oils with different chemotypes. BMC Plant Biology, 25, 33. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-024-06015-2.
47. Kaur, R.., Gupta, T.B., Bronlund, J., Singh, J., & Kaur, L. (2024). Synthesis and characterization of Mānuka and rosemary oil-based nanoentities and their applica¬tion in meat. Food Chemistry, 436, 137600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.137600.
48. Sokmen, A., Gulluce, M., Akpulat, H.A., Daferera, D., Tepe, B., Polissiou, M., Sokmen, M., & Sahin, F. (2004). The in vitro antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of the essential oils and methanol extracts of endemic Thymus spathulifolius. Food Control, 15, 627-634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2003.10.005.
49. Rana, G.M., Uddin, M.J., Barmon, J., Ghos, B.C., Chowdhury, T.A., Dey, A.K., Maitra, B., Tamanna, I.M., Rahman, M. AHM., Saha, B.K., & Yeasmin, M. S. (2025). Assessment of the essential oil extracted from Citrus aurantifolia leaves using solvent-free microwave extraction technique. Food Chemistry Advances, 100913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.focha.2025.100913.
50. Candan, F., Unlu, M., Tepe, B., Daferera, D., Polissiou, M., Sökmen, A., & Akpulat, H.A. (2003). Antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil and methanol extracts of Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium Afan. (Asteraceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 87, 215-220. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00149-1.
51. Rungqu, P., Oyedeji, O., Gondwe, M., & Oyedeji, A. (2023). Chemical composition, analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of Pelargonium peltatum es¬sential oils from Eastern Cape, South Africa. Mol¬ecules, 28, 5294. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28145294.
52. Patil, J.R., Jayaprakasha, G.K., Murthy, K.C., Tichy, S.E., Chetti, M.B., & Patil, B.S. (2009). Apoptosis-mediated proliferation inhibition of human colon cancer cells by volatile principles of Citrus aurantifolia. Food Chemistry, 114, 1351-1358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.11.033.
53. Arunasree, K.M. (2010). Anti-proliferative effects of carvacrol on a human metastatic breast cancer cell line, MDA-MB 231. Phytomedicine, 17, 581-588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2009.12.008.
54. Akşit, H., Şimşek, S., Aydın, A., Bayar, Y., & Alkan, M. (2025). Chemical composition and bioactivities of Ferulago setifolia K. Koch. essential oil: Antifungal, insecticidal and antiproliferative potential. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 0, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.3859.
55. Pandey, V., Khanal, S., Shahi, N., Parajuli, R., Adhikari, A., & Pokharel, Y.R. (2025). Anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative role of essential oil of leaves of Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr. & Perry. Anti-Cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry, 25, 232-243. https://doi.org/10.2174/0118715206304193240715043704.
56. Kada, T., & Shimoi, K. (1987). Desmutagens and bio‐antimutagens–their modes of action. Bioessays, 7, 113-116. https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.950070305.
57. Sharma, N., Trikha, P., Athar, M., & Raisuddin, S. (2001). Inhibition of benzo [a] pyrene-and cyclophoshamide-induced mutagenicity by Cinnamomum cassia. Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, 480, 179-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0027-5107(01)00198-1.
58. Ramel, C, Alekperov, U.K., Ames, B.N., Kada, T., & Wattenberg, L.W. (1986). Inhibitors of mutagenesis and their relevance to carcinogenesis: Report by ICPEMC expert group on antimutagens and desmutagens. Mutation Research/Reviews in Genetic Toxicology, 168, 47-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1110(86)90021-7.
59. De Flora, S., & Ramel, C. (1988). Mechanisms of inhibitors of mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. Classification and overview. Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, 202, 285-306.
60. De-Oliveira, A.C., Ribeiro-Pinto, L.F., & Paumgartten, F.J. (1997). In vitro inhibition of CYP2B1 monooxygenase by β-myrcene and other monoterpenoid compounds. Toxicology Letters, 92, 39-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-4274(97)00034-9.
61. Hamidpour, R., Hamidpour, S., & Elias, G. (2017). Rosmarinus officinalis (Rosemary): a novel therapeutic agent for antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, antidepressant, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antiobesity treatment. Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research, 1, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.26717/bjstr.2017.01.000371.
62. Diaz-Moralli, S., Tarrado-Castellarnau, M., Miranda, A., & Cascante M. (2013). Tarrado- Targeting cell cycle regulation in cancer therapy. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 138, 255-271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2013.01.011.
63. Gabrielli, B., Brooks, K., & Pavey, S. (2012). Defective cell cycle checkpoints as targets for anti-cancer therapies. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 3, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2012.00009.
64. Rezaieseresht, H., Shobeiri, S., Kaskani, A., & Article, O. (2020). Chenopodium Botrys essential oil as a source of sesquiterpenes to ınduce apoptosis and G1 cell cycle arrest in cervical cancer cells. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research: IJPR, 19, 341-351. https://doi.org/10.22037/ijpr.2019.1100671.
65. Jeong, J.B., Choi, J., Lou, Z., Jiang, X., & Lee, S.H. (2013). Patchouli alcohol, an essential oil of Pogostemon cablin, exhibits anti-tumorigenic activity in human colorectal cancer cells. International Immunopharmacology, 16, 184-190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2013.04.006.
66. Shukla, A., Thakur, M., Verma, R., Lalhlenmawia, H., Bhattacharyya, S., Bisht, D., Singh, A., Parcha, V., & Kumar, D. (2022). Unravelling the therapeutic potential of orchid plant against cancer. South African Journal of Botany, 150, 69-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2022.07.005.
67. Chen, W., Lu, Y., Wu, J., Gao, M., Wang, A., & Xu, B. (2011). Beta-elemene inhibits melanoma growth and metastasis via suppressing vascular endothelial growth factor-mediated angiogenesis. Cancer Chemotherapy and Pharmacology, 67, 799-808. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00280-010-1378-x.
68. Murthy, K.N.C., Jayaprakasha, G.K., & Patil, B.S. (2012). D-limonene rich volatile oil from blood oranges inhibits angiogenesis, metastasis and cell death in human colon cancer cells. Life Sciences, 91, 429-439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2012.08.016.
69. Zeng, Q., Che, Y., Zhang, Y., Chen, M., Guo, Q., & Zhang, W. (2020). Thymol isolated from Thymus vulgaris L. inhibits colorectal cancer cell growth and metastasis by suppressing the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Drug Design, Development and Therapy, 14, 2535-2547. https://doi. org/10.2147/dddt.s254218.
70. Pal, P., Jana, S., Biswas, I., Mandal, D.P., & Bhattacharjee, S. (2022). Biphasic effect of the dietary phytochemical linalool on angiogenesis and metastasis. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, 477, 1041-1052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11010-021-04341-9.
71. Nakhjavani, M., Hardingham, J.E., Palethorpe, H.M., Tomita, Y., Smith, E., Price, T.J., & Townsend, A.R. (2019). Ginsenoside Rg3: Potential molecular targets and therapeutic indication in metastatic breast cancer. Medicines (Basel), 6, 17. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines6010017.
72. Zhang, R., Li, L., Li, H., Bai, H., Suo, Y., Cui, J., & Wang, Y. (2024). Ginsenoside 20(S)-Rg3 reduces KIF20A expression and promotes CDC25A proteasomal degradation in epithelial ovarian cancer. Journal of Ginseng Research, 48, 40-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgr.2023.06.008.
73. Lantry, L.E., Zhang, Z., Gao, F., Crist, K.A., Wang, Y., Kelloff G.J., Lubet R.A., & You, M. (1997). Chemopreventive effect of perillyl alcohol on 4‐(methylnitrosamino)‐1‐(3‐pyridyl)‐1‐butanone induced tumorigenesis in (C3H/HeJ XA/J) F1 mouse lung. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, 67, 20-25. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4644(1997)27+<20::AID-JCB6>3.0.CO;2-3
74. Li, R., Chen, W.C., Wang, W.P., Tian, W.Y., & Zhang, X.G. (2010). Extraction of essential oils from garlic (Allium sativum) using ligarine as solvent and its immunity activity in gastric cancer rat. Medicinal Chemistry Research, 19, 1092-1105. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00044-009-9255-z.
75. Manjamalai, A., & Grace, V.M. (2012). Antioxidant activity of essential oils from Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) in vitro and in vivo lung cancer bearing C57BL/6 mice. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, 13, 3065-3071. https://doi.org/10.7314/APJCP.2012.13.7.3065.
76. Singletary, K.W. (1996). Rosemary extract and carnosol stimulate rat liver glutathione-S-transferase and quinone reductase activities. Cancer Letters, 100, 139-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835(95)04082-X.
77. Sylvestre, M., Legault, J., Dufour, D., & Pichette, A. (2005). Chemical composition and anticancer activity of leaf essential oil of Myrica gale L. Phytomedicine, 12, 299-304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2003.12.004.
78. Li, Y., Huang, L., Xu, Y., Cheng, B., & Zhao, M. (2024). Optimization of enzyme-assisted extraction of rosemary essential oil using response surface methodology and its antioxidant activity by activating Nrf2 signaling pathway. Molecules, 29, 3382. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29143382.
79. Abidi, O., Abdelkafi-Koubaa, Z., Bettaieb-Dridi, I., Toumi, L., Marzouki, L., & Souilem, O. (2024). Pistacia lentiscus L. revealed in vitro anti-proliferative activity on MCF-7 breast cancer cells and in vivo anti-mammary cancer effect on C57BL/6 mice through necrosis, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant enhancements. Plos one, 19, e0301524. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301524.
80. Mantha, A.K. (2013). APE1: a molecule of focus with neuroprotective and anti-cancer properties. Journal of Biotechnology & Biomaterials, 3, e120.
81. Jaafari, A., Mouse, H.A., Rakib, E.M., M’barek, L.A., Tilaoui, M., Benbakhta, C., Boulli, A., Abbad, A., & Zyad A. (2007). Chemical composition and antitumor activity of different wild varieties of Moroccan thyme. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia, 17, 477-491. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-695X2007000400002.
82. Nikolić, B., Mitić-Ćulafić, D., Vuković-Gačić, B., & Knežević-Vukčević J. (2011). Modulation of genotoxicity and DNA repair by plant monoterpenes camphor, eucalyptol and thujone in Escherichia coli and mammalian cells. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 49, 2035-2045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2011.05.015.
83. Buhagiar, J.A., Podesta, M.T., Wilson, A.P., Micallef, M.J., & Ali S. (1999). The induction of apoptosis in human melanoma, breast and ovarian cancer cell lines using an essential oil extract from the conifer Tetraclinis articulata. Anticancer Research, 19, 5435-5443.
84. Cherkasova, V., Ilnytskyy, Y., Kovalchuk, O., & Kovalchuk, I. (2024). Targeting colorectal cancer: Unravelling the transcriptomic impact of cisplatin and high-THC cannabis extract. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25, 4439. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25084439.
85. Ait M'Barek, L., Ait Mouse, H., Jaâfari, A., Aboufatima, R., Benharref, A., Kamal, M., Bénard, J., El Abbadi, N., Bensalah, M., Gamouh, A., Chait, A., Dalal, A., & Zyad, A. (2007). Cytotoxic effect of essential oil of thyme (Thymus broussonettii) on the IGR-OV1 tumor cells resistant to chemotherapy. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, 40, 1537-1544. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-879X2007001100014.
86. Abdel-Aziz, M., Badr, Y., Kamal, N., & El-Khatib, E.H. (2005). In-vivo combined effect of cypermethrin and diode laser irradiation: comet assay measurements of DNA damage in rat liver cells. Arab Journal of Biotechnology, 8, 293-306.
87. Saab, A.M., Guerrini, A., Sacchetti, G., Maietti, S., Zeino, M., Arend, J., Gambari, R., Bernardi, F., & Efferth, T. (2012). Phytochemical analysis and cytotoxicity towards multidrug-resistant leukemia cells of essential oils derived from Lebanese medicinal plants. Planta Medica, 78, 1927-1931. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0032-1327896.
88. Calcabrini, A., Stringaro, A., Toccacieli, L., Meschini, S., Marra, M., Colone, M., Salvatore, G., Mondello, F., Arancia, G., & Molinar, A. (2004). Terpinen-4-ol, the main component of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil inhibits the in vitro growth of human melanoma cells. Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 122, 349-360. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0022-202X.2004.22236.x.
89. Mukhtar, M. H., El-Readi, M. Z., Elzubier, M. E., Fatani, S. H., Refaat, B., Shaheen, U., Adam Khidir, E.B., Taha, H.H., & Eid, S. Y. (2023). Cymbopogon citratus and citral overcome doxorubicin resistance in cancer cells via modulating the drug’s metabolism, toxicity, and multidrug transporters. Molecules, 28, 3415. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28083415.
90. Mbaveng, A.T., & Kuete, V. (2024). African medicinal plants and their constituents can fight glioblastoma and its drug resistance. Advances in Botanical Research, 111, 337-380. Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.abr.2023.12.009.
91. Ravizza, R., Gariboldi, M.B., Molteni, R., & Monti, E. (2008). Linalool, a plant-derived monoterpene alcohol, reverses doxorubicin resistance in human breast adenocarcinoma cells. Oncology Reports, 20, 625-630. https://doi.org/10.3892/or_00000051.
92. Effenberger-Neidnicht, K., & Schobert, R. (2011). Combinatorial effects of thymoquinone on the anti-cancer activity of doxorubicin. Cancer Chemotherapy and Pharmacology, 67, 867-874. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00280-010-1386-x.
93. Arafa ESA, Zhu, Q., Shah, Z.I., Wani, G., Barakat, B.M., Racoma, I., El-Mahdy, M.A., & Wani, A.A. (2011). Thymoquinone up-regulates PTEN expression and induces apoptosis in doxorubicin-resistant human breast cancer cells. Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, 706, 28-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2010.10.007.
94. Hadfield, N. (2001). The role of aromatherapy massage in reducing anxiety in patients with malignant brain tumours. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 7, 279-285. https://doi.org/10.12968/ijpn.2001.7.6.9025.
95. Kite, S.M., Maher, E. J., Anderson, K., Young, T., Young, J., Wood, J., Howells, N., & Bradburn, J. (1998). Development of an aromatherapy service at a cancer centre. Palliative Medicine, 12, 171-180. https://doi.org/10.1191/02692169867113574.
96. Koeller, J.M., Aapro, M.S., Gralla, R.J., Grunberg, S.M., Hesketh, P.J., Kris, M.G., & Clark-Snow, R.A. (2002). Antiemetic guidelines: creating a more practical treatment approach. Supportive Care in Cancer, 10, 519-522. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00520-001-0335-y.
97. Tayarani-Najaran, Z., Talasaz-Firoozi, E., Nasiri, R., Jalali, N., & Hassanzadeh, M.K. (2013). Antiemetic activity of volatile oil from Mentha spicata and Mentha× piperita in chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Ecancermedicalscience, 7, 290. https://doi.org/10.3332/ecancer.2013.290.
98. Maddocks-Jennings, W., Wilkinson, J.M., Cavanagh, H.M., & Shillington, D. (2009). Evaluating the effects of the essential oils Leptospermum scoparium (manuka) and Kunzea ericoides (kanuka) on radiotherapy induced mucositis: a randomized, placebo controlled feasibility study. European Journal of Oncology Nursing, 13, 87-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejon.2009.01.002.
99. Haisfield-Wolfe, M.E., & Rund, C. (1997). Malignant cutaneous wounds: a management protocol. Ostomy/Wound Management, 43, 56-60.
100. Warnke, P.H., Sherry, E., Russo, P.A.J., Acil, Y., Wiltfang, J., Sivananthan, S., Sprengel, M., Rolda`n, J.C., Schubert, S., Bredee, J.P., & Springer, I.N.G. (2006). Antibacterial essential oils in malodorous cancer patients: clinical observations in 30 patients. Phytomedicine, 13, 463-467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2005.09.012.
101. Soden, K., Vincent, K., Craske, S., Lucas, C., & Ashley, S. (2004). A randomized controlled trial of aromatherapy massage in a hospice setting. Palliative Medicine, 18, 87-92. https://doi.org/10.1191/0269216304pm874oa.
102. Pimenta, F.C., Alves, M.F., Pimenta, M.B., Melo, S.A., de Almeida, A.A., Leite, J.R., Pordeus, L.C., Diniz Mde, F., & de Almeida, R.N. (2016). Anxiolytic Effect of Citrus aurantium L. on patients with chronic myeloid leukemia. Phytotherapy Research, 30, 613-617. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.5566.
103. Hamzeh, S., Safari-Faramani, R., & Khatony, A. (2020). Effects of aromatherapy with lavender and peppermint essential oils on the sleep quality of cancer patients: A randomized controlled trial. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2020, 7480204. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/7480204.