Research Article
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Evaluation of the effects of storage time and temperature on the beverages

Year 2024, Volume: 8 Issue: 3, 550 - 560, 29.09.2024
https://doi.org/10.31015/jaefs.2024.3.8

Abstract

Beverages are an important part of the food sector their storage is also one of the most critical issues. This study investigated the effects of different storage temperatures and times on physicochemical properties, flavonoid and organic acid contents of soda, sherbet and ice tea produced by adding sour grape concentrate. Changes in the flavan-3-ol content of ice tea were also measured during the storage period. The beverages were stored in three different conditions, cold storage (~4°C), room temperature (~24°C) and controlled storage (20±1°C), for six months and analyzed every two months. Storage temperatures and time affected the total soluble solids and acidities of the beverages (p≤0.05). Tartaric acid decreased during storage, especially during the first two months in sherbets. Ice tea and soda drinks were found more stable than sherbets. The malic acid was found the major organic acid in beverages. Flavonoid content in ice tea was higher than others. The flavonoid concentrations of ice tea stored at 20 and 24°C and of sherbet at 4°C were statistically significant as a function of storage time while these values were not significant for ice tea stored at 4°C and of sherbet at 20 and 24°C (p≤0.05). Concentrations of flavan-3-ols varied with storage conditions. The levels of epicatechin, epigallocatechin and epigallocatechin gallate in ice tea samples decreased between an average of 43.72 and 71.15% at the end of six months of storage. Principal component analysis separated two months storage from other storage periods and perfectly discriminated the studied flavan-3-ols except catechin. Soluble solid and brix-acid ratio also dissociated similarly to flavan-3-ols.

Supporting Institution

This study was supported by Manisa Celal Bayar University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit

Project Number

This study was supported by Manisa Celal Bayar University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit (Project number: 2013/095).

Thanks

This study is a part of the doctoral thesis of the corresponding author. The authors would like to thank for financial support to Manisa Celal Bayar University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit.

References

  • Aguilar, T., De Bruijn, J., Loyola, C., Bustamante, L., Vergara, C., Von Baer, D., ... & Serra, I. (2018). Characterization of an antioxidant-enriched beverage from grape musts and extracts of winery and grapevine by-products. Beverages, 4(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages4010004
  • Anonymous, 2024 https://www.statista.com/markets/415/topic/997/non-alcoholic beverages/#overview. 26.04.2024
  • Aydemir, M. E., Takım, K., & Yılmaz, M. A. (2024). Characterization of phenolic components of black teas of different origins and the effect of brewing duration on quality properties. Food Science & Nutrition, 12(1), 494-507. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.3782
  • Balaswamy, K., Prabhakara Rao, P. G., Nagender, A., & Akula, S. (2011). Preparation of Sour Grape (Vitis Vinifera) Beverages and Evaluation of their Storage Stability. Journal of Food Process Technology, 2(3), 105-4. https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7110.1000116
  • Bendaali, Y., Vaquero, C., González, C., & Morata, A. (2022). Contribution of grape juice to develop new isotonic drinks with antioxidant capacity and interesting sensory properties. Frontiers in Nutrition, 9, 890640. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.890640
  • Castellari, M., Versari, A., Spinabelli, U., Galassi, S., & Amati, A. (2000). An improved HPLC method for the analysis of organic acids, carbohydrates, and alcohols in grape musts and wines. Journal of liquid chromatography & related technologies, 23(13), 2047-2056. https://doi.org/10.1081/JLC-100100472
  • de la Bastida, A. R., Peirotén, Á., Langa, S., Curiel, J. A., Arqués, J. L., & Landete, J. M. (2022). Effect of storage and heat treatment on the levels of bioactive flavonoids produced in fermented soy beverages. Lwt, 154, 112872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112872
  • Din, A., Parveen, S., Kausar, H., Khan, M. R., Shabbir, M. A., & Shehzad, A. (2014). Development and stability of bioactive compounds in carbonated black ice tea beverage. Brit. J. Agric. Sci, 9(1), 195-204.
  • Erol, N. T., Sarı, F., & Velioglu, Y. S. (2010). Polyphenols, alkaloids and antioxidant activity of different grades turkish black tea. Gida, 35(3), 161-8.
  • Genova, G., Iacopini, P., Baldi, M., Ranieri, A., Storchi, P., & Sebastiani, L. (2012). Temperature and storage effects on antioxidant activity of juice from red and white grapes. International journal of food science & technology, 47(1), 13-23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2011.02801.x
  • Hayoglu, I., Kola, O., Kaya, C., ÖZER, S., & Turkoglu, H. (2009). Chemical and sensory properties of verjuice, a traditional Turkish non‐fermented beverage from Kabarcik and Yediveren grapes. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 33, 252-263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4549.2008.00339.x
  • Henning SM, Fajardo-Lira C, Lee HW, Youssefian AA, Go VL, Heber D (2003) Catechin content of 18 teas and a green tea extract supplement correlates with the antioxidant capacity. Nutr Cancer. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327914NC4502_13
  • Idan, M. A., Al-Shawi, S. G., & Khudhair, N. A. (2021). Developing of grape-flavored whey probiotic beverage. Annals of the Romanian Society for Cell Biology, 4732-4741.
  • Jayasuriya, J. A. M. N., & Edirisinghe, J. C. (2016). Market analysis of beverages using principal component analysis. Proceedings of 15th Agricultural Research Symposium (2016) 36-40.
  • Jooyandeh, H. (2015). Manufacturing of a novel naturally carbonated fruit beverage. J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci, 4(11S), 47-53.
  • Korkmaz, N., Sener, S. O., Akkaya, S., Badem, M., Aliyazicioglu, R., Abudayyak, M., ... & Ozgen, U. (2019). Investigation of antioxidant, cytotoxic, tyrosinase inhibitory activities, and phenolic profiles of green, white, and black teas. Turkish Journal of Biochemistry, 44(3), 278-288. https://doi.org/10.1515/tjb-2017-0345
  • Kumar, P., Kumar, V., Chauhan, N., Singh, B. R., Chandra, S., Yadav, M. K., & Singh, J. (2023). Effect of storage conditions on quality of mixed fruits Ready-to-serve (RTS) Beverages. The Pharma Innovation Journal, SP-12(9): 1404-1406
  • Łuczaj, W., & Skrzydlewska, E. (2005). Antioxidative properties of black tea. Preventive medicine, 40(6), 910-918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.10.014
  • Marques, C., Sotiles, A. R., Farias, F. O., Oliveira, G., Mitterer-Daltoe, M. L., & Masson, M. L. (2020). Full physicochemical characterization of malic acid: Emphasis in the potential as food ingredient and application in pectin gels. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 13(12), 9118-9129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2020.10.036
  • Nanasombat, S., Thonglong, J., & Jitlakha, J. (2015). Formulation and characterization of novel functional beverages with antioxidant and anti-acetylcholinesterase activities. Functional Foods in Health and Disease, 5(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.31989/ffhd.v5i1.162
  • Nikolaou, A., Mitropoulou, G., Nelios, G., & Kourkoutas, Y. (2023). Novel Functional Grape Juices Fortified with Free or Immobilized Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus OLXAL-1. Microorganisms, 11(3), 646. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11030646
  • Omokpariola, D. O. (2022). Influence on storage condition and time on properties of carbonated beverages from utilization of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles: chemometric and health risk assessment. Environmental Analysis, Health and Toxicology, 37(3). https://doi.org/10.5620/eaht.2022019
  • Ough, C.S., Amerine, M.A. (1988). Methods for Analysis of Must and Wines, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
  • Paredes, J. L., Escudero-Gilete, M. L., & Vicario, I. M. (2022). A new functional kefir fermented beverage obtained from fruit and vegetable juice: Development and characterization. LWT, 154, 112728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112728
  • Plestenjak, A., Simcic, M., Hribar, J., Veber, M., Skorja, A., Kordis-Krapez, M., Pavlic, P., Vidrih, R. (2001). Sensorial properties of ice tea as affected by packaging. Food Technology and Biotechnology, 39(2), 101-108.
  • Porgalı, E., & Büyüktuncel, E. (2012). Determination of phenolic composition and antioxidant capacity of native red wines by high performance liquid chromatography and spectrophotometric methods. Food Research International, 45(1), 145-154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.10.025
  • Sabir, A., Kafkas, E., & Tangolar, S. (2010). Distribution of major sugars, acids, and total phenols in juice of five grapevine (Vitis spp.) cultivars at different stages of berry development. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 8(2), 425-433. https://doi.org/10.5424/sjar/2010082-1186
  • Serpen, A., Pelvan, E., Alasalvar, C., Mogol, B. A., Yavuz, H. T., Gokmen, V., ... & Ozcelik, B. (2012). Nutritional and functional characteristics of seven grades of black tea produced in Turkey. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 60(31), 7682-7689. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf302058d
  • Skotnicka, M., Chorostowska-Wynimko, J., Jankun, J., & Skrzypczak-Jankun, E. (2011). Review paper The black tea bioactivity: an overview. Central European journal of immunology, 36(4), 284-292.
  • Spanos, G. A., & Wrolstad, R. E. (1990). Influence of processing and storage on the phenolic composition of Thompson seedless grape juice. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 38(7), 1565-1571.
  • Thennakoon, T. M. E. S., Abeysinghe, P. D., Ranasinghe, P., Pathirana, R. N., White, A., Fernando, W. G. D., ... & Premakumara, S. (2022). Total phenolic content, total flavonoid content and in vitro antioxidant activities measured by the FRAP, ABTS, DPPH and ORAC assays of Sri Lankan black and green tea (Camellia sinensis) infusions.
  • Umeocho, C.E., Onuegbu, T.U., Nduka, J.K. (2021). Effects of storage on some properties of selected soft drinks sold in Nigeria. J Environ Sci 2021; 17(2):184
  • Xu, J. Z., Leung, L. K., Huang, Y., & Chen, Z. Y. (2003). Epimerisation of tea polyphenols in tea drinks. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 83(15), 1617-1621. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.1597
  • Yadav, A., Chandra, S., Singh, J., & Kumar, V. (2013). Effect of storage conditions on physico-chemical, microbial and sensory quality of ready-to-serve banana beverage. Madras Agricultural Journal, 100 (1-3): 251-256. https://doi.org/10.29321/MAJ.10.001284
  • Yang, J., Martinson, T. E., & Liu, R. H. (2009). Phytochemical profiles and antioxidant activities of wine grapes. Food Chemistry, 116(1), 332-339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.02.021
  • Wang, L. F., Kim, D. M., & Lee, C. Y. (2000). Effects of heat processing and storage on flavanols and sensory qualities of green tea beverage. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 48(9), 4227-4232. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0003597
  • Zhishen, J., Mengcheng, T., & Jianming, W. (1999). The determination of flavonoid contents in mulberry and their scavenging effects on superoxide radicals. Food chemistry, 64(4), 555-559.
Year 2024, Volume: 8 Issue: 3, 550 - 560, 29.09.2024
https://doi.org/10.31015/jaefs.2024.3.8

Abstract

Project Number

This study was supported by Manisa Celal Bayar University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit (Project number: 2013/095).

References

  • Aguilar, T., De Bruijn, J., Loyola, C., Bustamante, L., Vergara, C., Von Baer, D., ... & Serra, I. (2018). Characterization of an antioxidant-enriched beverage from grape musts and extracts of winery and grapevine by-products. Beverages, 4(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages4010004
  • Anonymous, 2024 https://www.statista.com/markets/415/topic/997/non-alcoholic beverages/#overview. 26.04.2024
  • Aydemir, M. E., Takım, K., & Yılmaz, M. A. (2024). Characterization of phenolic components of black teas of different origins and the effect of brewing duration on quality properties. Food Science & Nutrition, 12(1), 494-507. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.3782
  • Balaswamy, K., Prabhakara Rao, P. G., Nagender, A., & Akula, S. (2011). Preparation of Sour Grape (Vitis Vinifera) Beverages and Evaluation of their Storage Stability. Journal of Food Process Technology, 2(3), 105-4. https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7110.1000116
  • Bendaali, Y., Vaquero, C., González, C., & Morata, A. (2022). Contribution of grape juice to develop new isotonic drinks with antioxidant capacity and interesting sensory properties. Frontiers in Nutrition, 9, 890640. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.890640
  • Castellari, M., Versari, A., Spinabelli, U., Galassi, S., & Amati, A. (2000). An improved HPLC method for the analysis of organic acids, carbohydrates, and alcohols in grape musts and wines. Journal of liquid chromatography & related technologies, 23(13), 2047-2056. https://doi.org/10.1081/JLC-100100472
  • de la Bastida, A. R., Peirotén, Á., Langa, S., Curiel, J. A., Arqués, J. L., & Landete, J. M. (2022). Effect of storage and heat treatment on the levels of bioactive flavonoids produced in fermented soy beverages. Lwt, 154, 112872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112872
  • Din, A., Parveen, S., Kausar, H., Khan, M. R., Shabbir, M. A., & Shehzad, A. (2014). Development and stability of bioactive compounds in carbonated black ice tea beverage. Brit. J. Agric. Sci, 9(1), 195-204.
  • Erol, N. T., Sarı, F., & Velioglu, Y. S. (2010). Polyphenols, alkaloids and antioxidant activity of different grades turkish black tea. Gida, 35(3), 161-8.
  • Genova, G., Iacopini, P., Baldi, M., Ranieri, A., Storchi, P., & Sebastiani, L. (2012). Temperature and storage effects on antioxidant activity of juice from red and white grapes. International journal of food science & technology, 47(1), 13-23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2011.02801.x
  • Hayoglu, I., Kola, O., Kaya, C., ÖZER, S., & Turkoglu, H. (2009). Chemical and sensory properties of verjuice, a traditional Turkish non‐fermented beverage from Kabarcik and Yediveren grapes. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 33, 252-263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4549.2008.00339.x
  • Henning SM, Fajardo-Lira C, Lee HW, Youssefian AA, Go VL, Heber D (2003) Catechin content of 18 teas and a green tea extract supplement correlates with the antioxidant capacity. Nutr Cancer. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327914NC4502_13
  • Idan, M. A., Al-Shawi, S. G., & Khudhair, N. A. (2021). Developing of grape-flavored whey probiotic beverage. Annals of the Romanian Society for Cell Biology, 4732-4741.
  • Jayasuriya, J. A. M. N., & Edirisinghe, J. C. (2016). Market analysis of beverages using principal component analysis. Proceedings of 15th Agricultural Research Symposium (2016) 36-40.
  • Jooyandeh, H. (2015). Manufacturing of a novel naturally carbonated fruit beverage. J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci, 4(11S), 47-53.
  • Korkmaz, N., Sener, S. O., Akkaya, S., Badem, M., Aliyazicioglu, R., Abudayyak, M., ... & Ozgen, U. (2019). Investigation of antioxidant, cytotoxic, tyrosinase inhibitory activities, and phenolic profiles of green, white, and black teas. Turkish Journal of Biochemistry, 44(3), 278-288. https://doi.org/10.1515/tjb-2017-0345
  • Kumar, P., Kumar, V., Chauhan, N., Singh, B. R., Chandra, S., Yadav, M. K., & Singh, J. (2023). Effect of storage conditions on quality of mixed fruits Ready-to-serve (RTS) Beverages. The Pharma Innovation Journal, SP-12(9): 1404-1406
  • Łuczaj, W., & Skrzydlewska, E. (2005). Antioxidative properties of black tea. Preventive medicine, 40(6), 910-918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.10.014
  • Marques, C., Sotiles, A. R., Farias, F. O., Oliveira, G., Mitterer-Daltoe, M. L., & Masson, M. L. (2020). Full physicochemical characterization of malic acid: Emphasis in the potential as food ingredient and application in pectin gels. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 13(12), 9118-9129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2020.10.036
  • Nanasombat, S., Thonglong, J., & Jitlakha, J. (2015). Formulation and characterization of novel functional beverages with antioxidant and anti-acetylcholinesterase activities. Functional Foods in Health and Disease, 5(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.31989/ffhd.v5i1.162
  • Nikolaou, A., Mitropoulou, G., Nelios, G., & Kourkoutas, Y. (2023). Novel Functional Grape Juices Fortified with Free or Immobilized Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus OLXAL-1. Microorganisms, 11(3), 646. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11030646
  • Omokpariola, D. O. (2022). Influence on storage condition and time on properties of carbonated beverages from utilization of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles: chemometric and health risk assessment. Environmental Analysis, Health and Toxicology, 37(3). https://doi.org/10.5620/eaht.2022019
  • Ough, C.S., Amerine, M.A. (1988). Methods for Analysis of Must and Wines, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
  • Paredes, J. L., Escudero-Gilete, M. L., & Vicario, I. M. (2022). A new functional kefir fermented beverage obtained from fruit and vegetable juice: Development and characterization. LWT, 154, 112728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112728
  • Plestenjak, A., Simcic, M., Hribar, J., Veber, M., Skorja, A., Kordis-Krapez, M., Pavlic, P., Vidrih, R. (2001). Sensorial properties of ice tea as affected by packaging. Food Technology and Biotechnology, 39(2), 101-108.
  • Porgalı, E., & Büyüktuncel, E. (2012). Determination of phenolic composition and antioxidant capacity of native red wines by high performance liquid chromatography and spectrophotometric methods. Food Research International, 45(1), 145-154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.10.025
  • Sabir, A., Kafkas, E., & Tangolar, S. (2010). Distribution of major sugars, acids, and total phenols in juice of five grapevine (Vitis spp.) cultivars at different stages of berry development. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 8(2), 425-433. https://doi.org/10.5424/sjar/2010082-1186
  • Serpen, A., Pelvan, E., Alasalvar, C., Mogol, B. A., Yavuz, H. T., Gokmen, V., ... & Ozcelik, B. (2012). Nutritional and functional characteristics of seven grades of black tea produced in Turkey. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 60(31), 7682-7689. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf302058d
  • Skotnicka, M., Chorostowska-Wynimko, J., Jankun, J., & Skrzypczak-Jankun, E. (2011). Review paper The black tea bioactivity: an overview. Central European journal of immunology, 36(4), 284-292.
  • Spanos, G. A., & Wrolstad, R. E. (1990). Influence of processing and storage on the phenolic composition of Thompson seedless grape juice. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 38(7), 1565-1571.
  • Thennakoon, T. M. E. S., Abeysinghe, P. D., Ranasinghe, P., Pathirana, R. N., White, A., Fernando, W. G. D., ... & Premakumara, S. (2022). Total phenolic content, total flavonoid content and in vitro antioxidant activities measured by the FRAP, ABTS, DPPH and ORAC assays of Sri Lankan black and green tea (Camellia sinensis) infusions.
  • Umeocho, C.E., Onuegbu, T.U., Nduka, J.K. (2021). Effects of storage on some properties of selected soft drinks sold in Nigeria. J Environ Sci 2021; 17(2):184
  • Xu, J. Z., Leung, L. K., Huang, Y., & Chen, Z. Y. (2003). Epimerisation of tea polyphenols in tea drinks. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 83(15), 1617-1621. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.1597
  • Yadav, A., Chandra, S., Singh, J., & Kumar, V. (2013). Effect of storage conditions on physico-chemical, microbial and sensory quality of ready-to-serve banana beverage. Madras Agricultural Journal, 100 (1-3): 251-256. https://doi.org/10.29321/MAJ.10.001284
  • Yang, J., Martinson, T. E., & Liu, R. H. (2009). Phytochemical profiles and antioxidant activities of wine grapes. Food Chemistry, 116(1), 332-339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.02.021
  • Wang, L. F., Kim, D. M., & Lee, C. Y. (2000). Effects of heat processing and storage on flavanols and sensory qualities of green tea beverage. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 48(9), 4227-4232. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0003597
  • Zhishen, J., Mengcheng, T., & Jianming, W. (1999). The determination of flavonoid contents in mulberry and their scavenging effects on superoxide radicals. Food chemistry, 64(4), 555-559.
There are 37 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Food Technology, Fruit-Vegetables Technology
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Ali Güler 0000-0002-7762-1361

Özlem Tokuşoğlu 0000-0002-8960-5641

Project Number This study was supported by Manisa Celal Bayar University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit (Project number: 2013/095).
Publication Date September 29, 2024
Submission Date May 29, 2024
Acceptance Date August 22, 2024
Published in Issue Year 2024 Volume: 8 Issue: 3

Cite

APA Güler, A., & Tokuşoğlu, Ö. (2024). Evaluation of the effects of storage time and temperature on the beverages. International Journal of Agriculture Environment and Food Sciences, 8(3), 550-560. https://doi.org/10.31015/jaefs.2024.3.8
AMA Güler A, Tokuşoğlu Ö. Evaluation of the effects of storage time and temperature on the beverages. int. j. agric. environ. food sci. September 2024;8(3):550-560. doi:10.31015/jaefs.2024.3.8
Chicago Güler, Ali, and Özlem Tokuşoğlu. “Evaluation of the Effects of Storage Time and Temperature on the Beverages”. International Journal of Agriculture Environment and Food Sciences 8, no. 3 (September 2024): 550-60. https://doi.org/10.31015/jaefs.2024.3.8.
EndNote Güler A, Tokuşoğlu Ö (September 1, 2024) Evaluation of the effects of storage time and temperature on the beverages. International Journal of Agriculture Environment and Food Sciences 8 3 550–560.
IEEE A. Güler and Ö. Tokuşoğlu, “Evaluation of the effects of storage time and temperature on the beverages”, int. j. agric. environ. food sci., vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 550–560, 2024, doi: 10.31015/jaefs.2024.3.8.
ISNAD Güler, Ali - Tokuşoğlu, Özlem. “Evaluation of the Effects of Storage Time and Temperature on the Beverages”. International Journal of Agriculture Environment and Food Sciences 8/3 (September 2024), 550-560. https://doi.org/10.31015/jaefs.2024.3.8.
JAMA Güler A, Tokuşoğlu Ö. Evaluation of the effects of storage time and temperature on the beverages. int. j. agric. environ. food sci. 2024;8:550–560.
MLA Güler, Ali and Özlem Tokuşoğlu. “Evaluation of the Effects of Storage Time and Temperature on the Beverages”. International Journal of Agriculture Environment and Food Sciences, vol. 8, no. 3, 2024, pp. 550-6, doi:10.31015/jaefs.2024.3.8.
Vancouver Güler A, Tokuşoğlu Ö. Evaluation of the effects of storage time and temperature on the beverages. int. j. agric. environ. food sci. 2024;8(3):550-6.


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