Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) and Its Effects on Human Health

Yıl 2017, Cilt: 15 Sayı: 4, 436 - 447, 24.12.2017

Abdullah Çağlar , Oktay Tomar Hülya Vatansever Elif Ekmekçi

https://doi.org/10.24323/akademik-gida.370408

Cited By: 4

Öz

Turkey, especially
Southeastern Anatolian Region, has an important place in the world ranking as
well as an economic value in terms of pistachio production. Pistachios, which
are from nuts with hard shells, have positive effects on health. Pistachios
have rich nutritional content in terms of protein, fat and fatty acids, fiber,
vitamins and minerals. As a rich source of phenolic compounds, pistachios take
attention with a high antioxidant activity. Various researchers have reported that
pistachio consumption may have beneficial effects on hypertension, cancer,
diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. In this present study, the place and the
importance of pistachios in human nutrition and health are reviewed.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Pistachio, Health, Phenolic compounds, Antioxidant activity, Nutrition

Antepfıstığı (Pistacia vera L.) ve İnsan Sağlığı Üzerine Etkileri

Öz

Ülkemiz özellikle Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi
antepfıstığı üretimi bakımından ekonomik bir değer oluşturmasının yanı sıra
dünya sıralamasında önemli bir yere sahiptir. Sert kabuklu yemişlerden olan
antepfıstığının sağlık üzerine olumlu etkileri bulunmaktadır. Protein, yağ ve
yağ asitleri, lif, vitamin ve mineral bakımından zengin besinsel içeriğe sahiptir.
Fenolik bileşikler bakımından zengin bir kaynak olan antepfıstığı, yüksek
antioksidan aktivitesiyle dikkat çekmektedir. Antepfıstığı tüketiminin hipertansiyon,
kanser, diyabet ve kardiyovasküler hastalıklar üzerinde yararlı etkilerinin
bulunduğu çeşitli araştırmacılar tarafından belirlenmiştir. Bu derlemede
antepfıstığının beslenme ve sağlık açısından yeri ve önemi üzerinde
durulmuştur.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Antepfıstığı, Sağlık, Fenolik bileşikler, Antioksidan aktivite, Beslenme

Kaynakça

• [1] Maskan, M., Karatas, S., 1999. Storage stability of whole-split pistachio nuts (Pistachia vera L.) at various conditions. Food Chemistry 66: 227–233.
• [2] Tekin, H., Arpacı, S., Atlı, H.S., Açar, I., Karadağ, S., Yükçeken, Y., Yaman, A., 2001. Antepfıstığı yetiştiriciliği. Antepfıstığı Araştırma Enstitüsü. Yayın No: 13, 3–11p.
• [3] Kashaninejad, M., Tabil, L.G., Mortazavi, A., Kordi, A., 2003. Effect of drying methods on quality of pistachio nuts. Drying Technology 21(5): 821–838.
• [4] Özbek, S., 1978. Özel Meyvecilik. Çukurova Üniversitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları No: 128, Ders Kitabı: 11, Sayfa 486.
• [5] Parfitt, E.D., 1995. Pistachio cultivars. California Pistachio Industry. Annual Report 1994-1995, 43-47p.
• [6] Aruso, T., 2001. The description of the pistachio trees. Dipartimento di Arboricoltura, Botanica e Patologia Vegetale Universita Fedrico II, Napoli Italy, Abstract Artical.
• [7] Bilgen, A.M., 1973. Antepfıstığı. Tarım ve Hayvancılık Bakanlığı Yayını, Ankara, 123.
• [8] Shokraii, E.H., Esen, A., 1988. Composition, solubility and electrophoretic patterns of protein isolated from Kerman pistachio nuts (Pistacia vera L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 36: 425-429.
• [9] Altuntaş, E., Mutlu, A., 2007. Antepfıstığı (Pistacia vera L.) kabuklu ve iç meyvesinin bazı fiziksel özelliklerinin belirlenmesi. Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 24(1): 19-25.
• [10] Tekin, H., Arpacı, S., Atlı, S., 1995. Antepfıstığı yetiştirme tekniği. Antepfıstığı Araştırma.
• [11] Ulusaraç, A., 1993. Antepfıstığı çeşit kataloğu. Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanlığı, Yayın No: 4, Ankara.
• [12] Atlı, H.S., Arpacı, S., Ayanoğlu, H., 1998. Antepfıstığı yabani türlerinin Türkiye’de yayılış alanları. IPGRI Meeting. Jordan.
• [13] Ayfer, M., 1990. Antepfıstığının dünü bugünü ve geleceği. Türkiye 1. Antepfıstığı Sempozyumu, Gaziantep, 14-23.
• [14] Bolu, F., 2002. Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi antepfıstığı alanlarındaki böcek ve akar faunasının saptanması. Türk Entomoloji Dergisi 26(3): 197-208.
• [15] Anonim, 2010. Bahçecilik, Antepfıstığı Yetiştiriciliği. T.C. Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı, Mesleki ve Teknik Eğitim Materyali, Ankara.
• [16] Kaşka, N., 1995. Pistachio nut growing in Turkey. Acta Horticulturae 419: 161-164.
• [17] TÜİK, 2015. Gıda Tarım ve Hayvancılık Bakanlığı, http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?alt_id=1001 (Erişim Tarihi: 01.11.2016).
• [18] Anonim, 1999. Tarımsal yapı ve üretim. T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü Yayınları No: 2457, Ankara.
• [19] Anonim, 2013. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Ekonomi Bakanlığı Antepfıstığı Sektör Raporları. İhracat Genel Müdürlüğü. Tarım Ürünleri Daire Başkanlığı, Ankara
• [20] Tous, J., Ferguson, L., 1996. Mediterranean Fruits. In: Progress in new crops, Edited by J. Janick, ASHS Press, Arlington, VA, 416-430p.
• [21] Yahia, E.M., 2011. Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits. Volume:4, Mangosteen to white sapote, In: Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.), Edited by M. Kashaninejad, Oxford Cambrige Philadelphia New Delhi, 218-246p.
• [22] Tunalıoğlu, R., Taşkaya, B., 2003. Antepfıstığı. TEAE BAKIŞ, Tarımsal Ekonomi Araştırma Enstitüsü Dergisi, Sayı 2, Nüsha 5, Ankara.
• [23] Ayaz, A., 2012. Yağlı tohumların beslenmemizdeki yeri. Sağlık Bakanlığı, Yayın No: 727, 2. Baskı, Ankara.
• [24] Çeliktaş, M., Dağlıoğlu, F., 2008. Kuru meyvelerde aflatoksin riski. Türkiye 10. Gıda Kongresi, 21-23 Mayıs, Erzurum.
• [25] Ferguson, L., Kader, A., Thompson, J., 1995. Harvesting, transporting, processing and grading. In: Pistachio Production, Edited by L. Ferguson, Center for Fruit and Nut Crop Research and Information, University of California, Pomology Department, Center for Fruit and Nut Crop Research and Information, Davis CA, 110-114p.
• [26] Perry, E., 1998. Harvesting and storing your home Orchard’s nut crop: almonds, walnuts, pecans, pistachios, and chesnuts. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 8005: 6-7.
• [27] Seferoğlu, S., Seferoğlu, H.G., Tekintaş, F.E., Balta, F., 2006. Biochemical composition influenced by different locations in Uzun pistachio cv. (Pistacia vera L.) grown in Turkey. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19: 461-465.
• [28] Tokuşoğlu, Ö., 2007. Yeşil Altın: Antepfıstığı: Teknolojisi, Kimyası ve Kalite Kontrolü, Sönmez Ofset Matbaacılık, Nisan, 1. Baskı, Syf 86.
• [29] Tayar, M., Haşıl Korkmaz, N., Özkeleş, H.E., 2011. Beslenme İlkeleri. Dora Yayınları, 1. Baskı, Bursa, Syf 310-311.
• [30] USDA, 2013. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 26. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page. United States Department of Agriculture. http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/bhnrc/ndl (Erişim Tarihi: 13.11.2016).
• [31] Küçüköner, E., Yurt, B., 2003. Some chemical characteristics of Pistacia vera varieties produced in Turkey. European Food Research and Technology 217: 308–310.
• [32] USDA, 2016. USDA, Nutrient Database for Standard Reference. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3736?fgcd=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=&sort=&qlookup=&offset=&format=Full&new=&measureby= (Erişim Tarihi: 13.11.2016).
• [33] Bullό, M., Juanola-Falgarona, M., Hernandez-Alonso, P., Salas-Salvadό, J., 2015. Nutrition attributes and health effects of pistachio nuts. British Journal of Nutrition 113: 79–93.
• [34] Pala, M., Yıldız, M., Açkurt, F., Löker, M., 1994. Türkiye’de üretilen antepfıstığı çeşitlerinin bileşimi. Gıda 19(6): 405-409.
• [35] Bebis (Beslenme Bilgi Sistemi) Nutrition Data Base Software İstanbul, 2004. Data Base: The German Food Code and Nutrient Data Base (BLS II.3, 1999) with additions from USDA-sr and other sources.
• [36] Huang H.Y., Caballero, B., Chang, S., Alberg A.J., Semba, R.D., Schneyer, C.R., Wilson, R.F., Cheng, T.Y., Vassy, J., Prokopowicz, G., Barnes, G.J., Bass, E.B., 2006. The efficacy and safety of multivitamin and mineral supplement use to prevent cancer and chronic disease in adults: a systematic review for a National Institutes of Health state-of-the science conference. Annals of Internal Medicine 145(5): 372–385.
• [37] Hercberg, S., Kesse-Guyot, E., Druesne-Pecollo, N., Touvier, M., Favier, A., Latino-Martel, P., Briançon, S., Galan, P., 2010. Incidence of cancers, ischemic cardiovascular diseases and mortality during 5-year follow-up after stopping antioxidant vitamins and minerals supplements: a postintervention follow-up in the SU.VI.MAX Study. International Journal of Cancer 127: 1875–1881.
• [38] Küçüköner, E., Yurt, B. 2000. Geçmişten günümüze antepfıstığı ve Türkiye'deki durumu. Standard 39(12): 38-44.
• [39] Shi, J., Ho, C.T., Shahidi, F., 2010. Functional Foods of the East. In: Antioxidant Functional Factors in Nuts, Edited by Y. Kabir & J.S. Sidhu, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Londan, New York, 343-397p.
• [40] Murray, M. I., Pizzorna J., Pizzorna L., 2005. The Condensed Encyclopedia of Healing Foods. Atria Books, New York, 468-475p.
• [41] Koch, M. U., 2011. Laugh with Health. Australia, 103p. [42] Kornsteiner, M., Wagner, K.H., Elmadfa, I., 2006. Tocopherols and total phenolics in 10 different nut types. Food Chemistry 98: 381–387.
• [43] Ballistreri, G., Arena, E., Fallico, B., 2009. Influence of ripeness and drying process on the polyphenols and tocopherols of Pistacia vera L.. Molecules 14(11): 4358-4369.
• [44] Dismore, M.L., Haytowitz, D.B., Gebhardt, S.E., Peterson, J.W., Booth, S.L., 2003. Vitamin K content of nuts and fruits in the US diet. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103(12): 1650-1652.
• [45] Heber, D., Bowerman, S., 2008. The pistachio, a surprising and colorful nut. Nutrition Today 43(1): 36-40.
• [46] Özer, E.A., Güven, A., 2008. Sert kabuklu meyvelerin sağlık üzerine etkileri. Türkiye 10. Gıda Kongresi, 21-23 Mayıs, Erzurum.
• [47] Yıldız, M., Gurcan, S.T., Ozdemir, M., 1998. Oil composition of pistachio nuts (Pistacia vera L.) from Turkey. Fett-Lipid 100(3): 84-86.
• [48] Garcia, J.M., Agar, I.T., Streif, J., 1992. Analysis of fat content and fatty acid composition in individual seeds in pistachio varieties grown in Turkey. Gartenbauwissenschaft 57: 130-133.
• [49] Agar, I.T., Kaska, N., Kafkas, S., 1995. Characterization of lipids in Pistacia species grown in Turkey. Acta Horticulturae 419: 417-422.
• [50] Maskan, M., Karatas, S., 1998. Fatty acid oxidation of Pistachio nuts stored under various atmospheric conditions and different temperatures. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 77: 334-340.
• [51] Satil, F., Azcan, N., Baser, K.H.S., 2003. Fatty acid composition of pistachio nuts in Turkey. Chemistry of Natural and Compound 39(4): 322-324.
• [52] Chahed, T., Bellila, A., Dhifi, W., Hamrouni, I., M’hamdi, B., Kchouk, M.E., Marzouk, B., 2008. Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) seed oil composition: geographic situation and variety effects. Grasas Y Aceites 59(1): 51-56.
• [53] Ostlund, R.E., Racette, S.B., Stenson, W.F., 2002. Effects of trace components of dietary fat on cholesterol metabolism: phytosterols, oxysterols, and squalene. Nutrition Reviews 60: 349–359.
• [54] Maguire, L.S., O’Sullivan, S.M., Galvin, K., O’Connor, T.P., O’Brien, N.M., 2004. Fatty acid profile, tocopherol, squalene, and phytosterol content of walnuts, almonds, peanuts, hazelnuts and macadamia nut. International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition 55: 171–178.
• [55] Ryan, E., Galvin, K., O’Connor, T.P., Maguire, A.R., O’Brien, N.M., 2006. Fatty acid profile, tocopherol, squalene and phytosterol content of brazil, pecan, pine, pistachio and cashew nuts. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 57: 219–228.
• [56] Ak, B. E., Unsal, A. S., 1993. The fruit composition and nutrient value of Pistachio nut. University of Harran, Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture 4(1): 68-78.
• [57] Baysal, A., 2012. Beslenme. 14. Baskı, Hatiboğlu Yayınevi, Ankara.
• [58] Bullό, M., Lamuela-Raventόs, R., Salas-Salvadό, J., 2011b. Mediterranean diet and oxidation: nuts and olive oil as important sources of fat and antioxidants. Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry 11(14): 1797–1810.
• [59] Bolling, B.W., Chen, C.Y., McKay, D.L., Blumberg, J.B., 2011. Tree nut phytochemicals: composition, antioxidant capacity, bioactivity, impact 1 factors. A systematic review of almonds, Brazils, cashews, hazelnuts, macadamias, pecans, pine nuts, pistachios and walnuts. Nutrition Research Reviews 24(2): 244–275.
• [60] Halvorsen, B.L., Carlsen, M.H., Phillips, K.M., Bøhn, S.K., Holte, K., Jacobs, DR. Jr., Blomhoff, R., 2006. Content of redox-active compounds (i.e. antioxidants) in foods consumed in the United States. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 84(1): 95–135.
• [61] Gentile, C., Tesoriere, L., Butera, D., Fazzari, M., Monastero, M., Allegra, M., Livrea, M.A., 2007. Antioxidant activity of sicilian Pistachio (P. vera L. Var. Bronte) nut extract and its bioactive components. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry 55: 643-648.
• [62] Seeram, N.P., Zhang, Y., Henning, S.M., Lee, R., Niu, Y., Lin, G., Heber, D., 2006. Pistachio skin phenolics are destroyed by bleaching resulting in reduced antioxidative capacities. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54(19): 7036–7040.
• [63] Hosseinzadeh, H., Tabassi, S.A.S., Moghadam, N.M., Rashedinia, M., Mehri, S., 2012. Antioxidant activity of Pistacia vera fruits, leaves and gum extracts. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 11(3): 879-887.
• [64] Tokuşoğlu, Ö., Hall III, C., 2011. Fruit and Cereal Bioactives. In: Nut bioactives: phytochemicals and lipid-based components of almonds, hazelnuts, peanuts, pistachios and walnuts, Edit by B. Fallico, G. Ballistreri, E. Arena and Ö. Tokuşoğlu. CRS Press. Taylor & Francis Group Boca, Raton, London, New York. 199p.
• [65] Ros, E., 2010. Health benefits of nut consumption. Nutrients 2: 652–682.
• [66] Luo, C., Zhang, Y., Ding, Y., Shan, Z., Chen, S., Yu, M., Hu, F.B., Liu, L., 2014. Nut consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 100(1): 256–269.
• [67] Zhou, D., Yu, H., He, F., Reilly, K.H., Zhang, J., Li, S., 2014. Nut consumption in relation to cardiovascular disease risk and type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 100: 270–277.
• [68] Griel, A.E., Kris-Etherton, P.M., 2006. Tree nuts and the lipid profile: a review of clinical studies. British Journal of Nutrition 96(2): 68–78.
• [69] Blanco Mejia, S., Kendall, C.W., Viguiliouk, E., Augustin, L.S., Ha, V., Cozma, A.I., Mirrahimi, A., Maroleanu, A., Chiavaroli, L., Leiter, L.A., de Souza, R.J., Jenkins, D.J., Sievenpiper, J.L., 2014. Effect of tree nuts on metabolic syndrome criteria: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ Open 4(7): e004660.
• [70] Ros, E., 2009. Nuts and novel biomarkers of cardiovascular disease. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 89: 1649–1656.
• [71] Barbour, J.A., Howe, P.R., Buckley, J.D., Bryan, J., Coates, A.M., 2014. Nut consumption for vascular health and cognitive function. Nutrition Research Reviews 27: 131–58.
• [72] Tsai, C.J., Leitzmann, M.F., Hu, F.B., Willett, W.C., Giovannucci, E.L., 2004. Frequent nut consumption and decreased risk of cholecystectomy in women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 80: 76-81.
• [73] Kalkancı, N., Yaman, A., Bağcı, C., Tarakçıoğlu, M., Davutoğlu, V., Aksoy, M., 2007. Antepfıstığının kan kolesterol seviyesi üzerine etkileri. Antepfıstığı Araştırma Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü. Yayın no: 33.
• [74] Surh, Y.J., 2003. Cancer chemoprevention with dietary phytochemicals. Nature Reviews Cancer 3: 768-780.
• [75] Kepekçi, Y., Boğa, C., Yılmaz, M., 1991. Diabetes Mellitus’ta antep fıstığına karşı kan glikoz cevabının glisemik indeks ile araştırılması. Beslenme ve Diyet Dergisi 20: 221-34.
• [76] Kendall, C.W.C., Josse, A.R., Esfahani, A., Jenkins, D.J.A., 2011. The impact of pistachio intake alone or in combination with highcarbohydrate foods on post-prandial glycemia. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 65 696–702.
• [77] Kendall, C.W.C., West, S.G., Augustin, L.S., Esfahani, A., Vidgen, E., Bashyam, B., Sauder, K.A., Cambell, J., Chiavaroli, L., Jenkins, A.L., Jenkins, D.J., 2014. Acute effects of pistachio consumption on glucose and insulin, satiety hormones and endothelial function in the metabolic syndrome. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68(3): 370–375.
• [78] Gulati, S., Misra, A., Pandey, R.M., Bhatt, S.P., Saluja, S., 2014. Effects of pistachio nuts on body composition, metabolic, inflammatory and oxidative stress parameters in Asian Indians with metabolic syndrome: a 24-wk, randomized control trial. Nutrition 30: 192–197.
• [79] Sauder, K.A., McCrea, C.E., Ulbrecht, J.S., Kris-Etherton, P.M., West, S.G., 2015. Effects of pistachios on the lipid/lipoprotein profile, glycemic control, inflammation, and endothelial function in type 2 diabetes: A randomized trial. Metabolism Clinical and Experimental 64(11): 1521– 1529.
• [80] Eseceli, H., Değirmencioğlu, A., Kahraman, R., 2006. Omega yağ asitlerinin insan sağlığı yönünden önemi. Türkiye 9. Gıda Kongresi, 24-26 Mayıs, Bolu. 403-406.
• [81] Kris-Etherton, P.M., Zhao, G., Binkoski, A.E., Coval, S.M and Etherton, T.D., 2001. The effects of nuts on coronary heart disease risk. Nutrition Reviews 59(4): 103-111.
• [82] Larsson, S.C., Kumlin, M., Ingelman-Sundberg, M., Wolk, A., 2004. Dietary long-chain n-3 fatty acids for the prevention of cancer: a review of potential mechanisms. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79: 935–945.
• [83] Bes-Rastrollo, M., Sabatѐ, J., Gόmez-Gracia, E., Alonso, A., Martínez, J.A. and Martínez-González, M.A., 2007. Nut consumption and weight gain in a Mediterranean cohort: the SUN study. Obesity (Silver Spring) 15(1): 107–116.
• [84] Bes-Rastrollo, M., Wedick, N.M., Martinez-Gonzalez, M.A, Li, T.Y., Sampson, L. and Hu, F.B., 2009. Prospective study of nut consumption, long-term weight change, and obesity risk in women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 89: 1913–1919.
• [85] Casas-Agustench, P., Bullό, M., Ros, E., Basora, J., Salas-Salvadό, J., Nureta- PREDIMED investigators, 2011. Crosssectional association of nut intake with adiposity in a Mediterranean population. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Disseases 21: 518–525.
• [86] Cotton, P.A., Subar, A.F., Friday, J.E., Cook, A., 2004. Dietary sources of nutrients among US adults, 1994 to 1996. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 104(6): 921–930.
• [87] Kris-Etherton, P.M., 1999. Monounsaturated fatty acids and risk of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 100: 1253–1258.
• [88] Edwards, K., Kwaw, I., Matud, J., Kurtz, I., 1999. Effect of pistachio nuts on serum lipid levels in patients with moderate hypercholesterolemia. The Journal of American College of Nutrition 18: 229-232.
• [89] Sari, I., Baltaci, Y., Bagci, C., Davutoglu, V., Erel, O., Celik, H., Ozer, O., Aksoy, N., Aksoy, M., 2010. Effect of pistachio diet on lipid parameters, endothelial function, inflammation, and oxidative status: A prospective study. Nutrition 26: 399–404.
• [90] Gebauer, S.K., West, S.G., Kay, C.D., Alaupovic, P., Bagshaw, D., Kris-Etherton, P.M., 2008. Effects of pistachios on cardiovascular disease risk factors and potential mechanismsof action: a dose–response study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 88: 651–659.
• [91] Kocyigit, A., Koylu, A.A., Keles, H., 2006. Effects of pistachio nuts consumption on plasma lipid profile and oxidative status in healthy volunteers. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases 16: 202–209.
• [92] Kasliwal, R., Bansal, M., Mehrotra, R., Yeptho, K.P., 2015. Effect of pistachio nut consumption on endothelial function and arterial stiffness. Nutrition 31: 678–685.
• [93] Kashaninejad, M., Tabil, L.G., 2011. Effect of microwave–chemical pre-treatment on compression characteristics of biomass grinds. Biosystems engineering 108(1): 36-45.
• [94] Gilbert, R., Thompson, M.D., Grundy, S.M., 2005. History and development of plant sterol and stanol esters for cholesterol-lowering purposes. The American Journal of Cardiology 96: 3-9.
• [95] Ye, E.Q., Chacko, S.A., Chou, E.L., Kuqizaki, M., Liu, S., 2012. Greater whole-grain intake is associated with lower risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and weight gain. Journal of Nutrition 142: 1304–1313.
• [96] Kaczmarczyk, M.M., Miller, M.J., Freund, G.G., 2012. The health benefits of dietary fiber: beyond the usual suspects of type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease and colon cancer. Metabolism 61(8): 1058–1066.
• [97] Anderson, J.W., Hanna, T.J., Peng, X., Kryscio, R.J., 2000. Whole grain foods and heart disease risk. The Journal of The American College of Nutrition 19(3): 291–299.
• [98] Razavi, S., 2010. Pistachio production: Iran vs the World. In: XIV GREMPA Meeting on Pistachios and Almonds, Edited by G. Zakynthinos, Zaragoza: CIHEAM / FAO / AUA / TEI Kalamatas / NAGREF. 275-279p.
• [99] Alberg, A.J., Samet, J.M., 2003. Epidemiology of lung cancer. Chest Journal 123: 21-49.
• [100] Singh, U., Jialal, I., 2004. Anti-inflammatory effect of α-tokoferol. Annals of the New York Academi of Sciences 1031: 195-203.
• [101] Anonim, 2009. American Association for Cancer Research. "Pistachios may reduce lung cancer risk." ScienceDaily. 9 December. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/12/091208191956.htm (Erişim Tarihi: 20.01.2017).
• [102] Dietrich, M., Traber, M.G., Jacques, P.F., Block, G., 2006. Does γ-tocopherol play a role in the primary prevention of heart disease and cancer? A Review. The Journal of the American College of Nutrition 25(4): 292–299.
• [103] Van het Hof, K.H., West, C.E., Weststrate, J.A., Hautvast, J.G., 2000. Dietary factors that affect the bioavailability of carotenoids. Journal of Nutrition 130: 503–506.
• [104] Carpentier, S., Knaus, M., Suh, M., 2009. Associations between lutein, zeaxanthin, and age-related macular degeneration: an overview. Crittical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 49: 313–326.
• [105] SanGiovanni, J.P., Neuringer, M., 2012. The putative role of lutein and zeaxanthin as protective agents against age-related macular degeneration: promise of molecular genetics for guiding mechanistic and translational research in the field. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 96(5): 1223-1233.
• [106] Bullό, M., Estruch, R., Salas-Salvadό, J., 2011a. Dietary vitamin K intake is associated with bone quantitative ultrasound measurements but not with bone peripheral biochemical markers in elderly men and women. Bone 48(6): 1313–1318.
• [107] Ibarrola-Jurado, N., Salas-Salvadό, J., Martínez-González, M.A., Bullό, M., 2012. Dietary phylloquinone intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in elderly subjects at high risk of cardiovascular disease. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 96: 1113–1118.
• [108] Juanola-Falgarona, M., Salas-Salvadό, J., Estruch, R., Portillo, M.P., Casas, R., Miranda, J., Martínez-González, M.A., Bulló, M., 2013. Association between dietary phylloquinone intake and peripheral metabolic risk markers related to insulin resistance and diabetes in elderly subjects at high cardiovascular risk. Cardiovascular Diabetology 12: 7.
• [109] Nimptsch, K., Rohrmann, S., Kaaks, R., Linseisen, J., 2010. Dietary vitamin K intake in relation to cancer incidence and mortality: results from the Heidelberg cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC-Heidelberg). The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 91: 1348–1358.
• [110] Juanola-Falgarona, M., Salas-Salvadό, J., Martínez-González, M.Á., Corella, D., Estruch, R., Ros, E., Fitó, M., Arós, F., Gómez-Gracia, E., Fiol, M., Lapedra, J., Basora, J., Lamuela-Raventós, R. M., Serra-Majem, L., Pintó, X., Muñoz, M. Á., Ruiz-Gutiérrez, V., Fernández-Ballart, J., Bulló, M., 2014. Dietary intake of vitamin K is inversely associated with mortality risk. Journal of Nutrition 144: 743–750.
• [111] Puupponen-Pimia, R., Nohynek, L., Alakomi, H.L., Oksman-Caldentey, K.M., 2005. Bioactive berry compoundsdnovel tools against human pathogens. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 67: 8–18.
• [112] Lau, F.C., Shukitt-Hale, B., Joseph, J.A., 2006. The beneficial effects of fruit poplyphenols on juice on cognitive and motor deficits in aging. Nutrition 22: 295–302.
• [113] Zafra-Stone, S., Yasmin, T., Bagchi, M., Chatterjee, A., Vinson, J.A., Bagchi, D., 2007. Berry anthocyanins as novel antioxidants in human health and disease prevention. Moleculer Nutrition and Food Research 51: 675–83.
• [114] Mandalari, G., Bisignano, C., Filocamo, A., Chessa, S., Sarò, M., Torre, G., Faulks, R.M., Dugo, P., 2013. Bioaccessibility of pistachio polyphenols, xanthophylls, and tocopherols during simulated human digestion. Nutrition 29: 338–344.
• [115] Hassellund, S.S., Flaa, A., Kjeldsen, S.E., Seljeflot, I., Karlsen, A., Erlund, I., Rostrup, M., 2013. Effects of anthocyanins on cardiovascular risk factors and inflammation in pre-hypertensive men: a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled crossover study. Journal of Human Hypertension 27: 100–106.
• [116] Orhan, I., Kupeli, E., Aslan, M., Kartal, M., Yesilada, E., 2006. Bioassay-guided evaluation of anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities of pistachio, (Pistacia vera L.). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 105 (1-2): 235–240.
• [117] Almehdar, H., Abdallah, H., Osman, A. and Abdel-Sattar, E., 2012. In vitro cytotoxic screening of selected Saudi medicinal plants. Journal of Natural Medicines 66: 406–412.
• [118] Alma, M.H., Nitz, S., Kolmannsberger, H., Digrak, M., Efe, F.T., Yilmaz, N., 2004. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oils from the gum of Turkish Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52(12): 3911-3914.
• [119] Tsokou, A., Georgopoulou, K., Melliou, E., Magiatis, P., Tsitsa, E., 2007. Composition and enantiomeric analysis of the essential oil of the fruits and the leaves of Pistacia vera from Greece. Molecules 12: 1233–1239.
• [120] Martorana, M., Arcoraci, T., Rizza, L., Cristani, M., Bonina, FP., Saija, A., Trombetta, D., Tomaino, A., 2013. In vitro antioxidant and in vivo photoprotective effect of pistachio (Pistacia vera L., variety Bronte) seed and skin extracts, Fitoterapia 85: 41-48.
• [121] Taghizadeh, M. and Razavi, M.A., 2009. Modeling time-independent rheological behavior of pistachio butter. International Journal of Food Properties 12: 331–340.
• [122] Burks, W., Helm, R., Stanley, S., Bannon, G.A., 2001. Food allergens. Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology 1: 243-248.
• [123] Crespo, J.F., Rodriguez, J., 2003. Food allergy in adulthood. Allergy 58: 98-113.
• [124] Parra, F.M., Cuevas, M., Lezaun, A., Alonso, M.D., Baristain, A.M., Losada, E., 1993. Pistachio nut hypersensitivity: identification of pistachio nut allergens. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 23: 996-1001.
• [125] Fernandez, C., Fiandor, A., Martinez-Garate, A., Martinez Quesada, J., 1995. Allergy to pistachio: cross reactivity between pistachio nut and other Anacardiaceae. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 25: 1254-1259.