Turkey’s Creative Cities

Öz

Creative cities are those which attract creative class working in creative jobs, densely contains high-educated people, have high-tech industries and tolerant to diversities. The power of future economies lies beneath the development of creative cities. Because creative cities have creativity that is the pioneer of development and growth. In this context, the purpose of the study is to examine the relationship between the levels of creativity and development of Turkey’s cities. In the study; firstly, cities’ creativity levels were calculated by using technology, tolerance and talent inputs and then compared with their development levels. Cities’ levels of creativity were calculated by using indexing method in Global Creativity Index. In the creative cities ranking, Ankara and Kocaeli shared the first place, followed by Eskişehir, İstanbul and İzmir. As a result of the study, a strong relationship between creativity and development also revealed in the cities of Turkey.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Creative economy,creative city,technology,tolerance,talent,Creativity Index,Turkey

Türkiye’nin Yaratıcı Şehirleri

Öz

Yaratıcı şehirler, yaratıcı mesleklerde çalışan yaratıcı sınıfı kendisine çeken, eğitim düzeyi yüksek insanların yoğun olduğu, yüksek teknolojili endüstrilere sahip, farklılıklara hoşgörülü şehirlerdir. Gelecek ekonomilerin gücü, yaratıcı şehirlerin gelişmesinin altında yatmaktadır. Çünkü yaratıcı şehirlerin temelinde, gelişme ve büyümenin öncüsü olan yaratıcılık vardır. Bu bağlamda, çalışmanın amacını da, Türkiye’nin şehirlerinin yaratıcılık seviyeleri ve gelişmişlik düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkinin irdelenmesi oluşturmaktadır. Çalışmada öncelikle; teknoloji, tolerans ve yetenek girdileri kullanılarak, şehirlerin yaratıcılık düzeyleri hesaplanmış ve daha sonra gelişmişlik seviyeleri ile kıyaslanmıştır. Şehirlerin yaratıcılık sıralamalarının oluşturulmasında Küresel Yaratıcılık Endeksi’nde yer alan endeks oluşturma yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Yaratıcı şehir sıralamasında, Ankara ve Kocaeli ilk sırayı paylaşmış, Eskişehir, İstanbul ve İzmir onları takip etmiştir. Sonuç olarak, yaratıcılık ve gelişmişlik arasındaki güçlü ilişki, Türkiye’nin şehirlerinde de ortaya çıkmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Yaratıcı ekonomi,yaratıcı şehir,teknoloji,tolerans,yetenek,Yaratıcılık Endeksi,Türkiye

Kaynakça

1. Acs, Zoltan J. & Monika I. Megyesi (2009). “Creativity and industrial cities: A case study of Baltimore”. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development 21(4): 421-439.
2. Ağır, Hüseyin (2010). “Türkiye ile Güney Kore’de Bilim ve Teknoloji Politikalarının Karşılaştırılması”. The Journal of Knowledge Economy & Knowledge Management V: 43-55.
3. Aksoy, Asu ve Zeynep Enlil (2011). Kültür Ekonomisi Envanteri İstanbul 2010. İstanbul: Bilgi Üniversitesi Yay.
4. Altıntaş, Halil ve Hakan Çetintaş (2010). “Türkiye’de Ekonomik Büyüme, Beşeri Sermaye Ve İhracat Arasındaki İlişkilerin Ekonometrik Analizi: 1970–2007”. Erciyes Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi 36: 33-56.
5. Bal, Harun vd. (2014). “Beşeri Sermaye ve Ekonomik Büyüme İlişkisi: BRICS Ülkeleri ve Türkiye Örneği”. International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Skopje, Makedonya. 1-3 July. 785-803.
6. Barro, Robert J. (1992). “Human Capital and Economic Growth”. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, Citeseer. Proceedings - Economic Policy Symposium - Jackson Hole. 199-216.
7. Bassett, Keith, Ron Griffiths & Ian Smith (2002). “Cultural Industries, Cultural Clusters and the City: The Example of Natural History Film-Making in Bristol”. Geoforum 33: 165-177.
8. Bayarçelik, Ebru B. ve Fulya Taşel ( 2012 ). “Research and Development: Source of Economic Growth”. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 58: 744-753.

9. Bilbao-Osorio, Benat & Andres Rodriguez-Pose (2004). “From R&D to Innovation and Economic Growth in the EU”. Growth and Change 35(4): 434-455.
10. Blanco, Luisa, James Prieger & Ji Gu (2013). “The Impact of Research and Development on Economic Growth and Productivity in the US States”. Pepperdine University, School of Public Policy Working Papers 48: 1-52.
11. Boix, Rafael et al. (2014). “Comparing Creative Industries in Europe”. European Urban and Regional Studies 23 (4): 935-940.
12. Booyens, Irma (2012). “Creative Industries, Inequality and Social Development: Developments, Impacts and Challenges in Cape Town”. Urban Forum 23: 43-60.
13. Boschma, Ron A. & Michael Fritsch (2009). “Creative Class and Regional Growth: Empirical Evidence from Seven European Countries”. Economic Geography 85(49): 391-423.
14. Bozkurt, Cuma (2015). “R&D Expenditures and Economic Growth Relationship in Turkey”. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues 5(1): 188-198.
15. Cooke, Phil & Lisa De Propris (2011). “A Policy Agenda for EU Smart Growth: The Role of Creative And Cultural Industries”. Policy Studies 32(4): 365-375.
16. Crosby, Mark (2000). “Patents, Innovation and Growth”. The Economic Record 76 (234): 255-262.
17. Cropley, David & Arthur Cropley (2010). “Understanding the Innovation-Friendly Institutional Environment: A Psychological Framework”. Baltic Journal of Psychology 11(1- 2): 73-87.
18. DCMS Department for Culture, Media & Sport (2015). Creative Industries Economic Estimates. Full Statistical Release.
19. Demir, Erman M. (2014). “Yaratıcı Endüstriler”. İLEF Dergisi 1(2): 87-107.
20. Donegan, Mary et al. (2008). “Which Indicators Explain Metropolitan Economic Performance Best? Traditional or Creative Class”. Journal of the American Planning Association 74 (2): 180-195.
21. Egedy, Tamas & Zoltan Kovács (2010), “Budapest: A great place for creative industrydevelopment?”. Urbani izziv 21 (2): 127-138.
22. Florida, Richard (2005). Cities and the Creative Class. New York: Routledge.
23. Florida, Richard, Charlotta Mellander & Karen King (2015). The Global Creativity Index 2015. Martin Prosperity Institute, Rotman School of Management. Canada: Toronto University.
24. Florida, Richard, Charlotta Mellander & Kevin Stolarick (2010). “Talent, Technology and Tolerance in Canadian Regional Development”. The Canadian Geographer 54 (3): 277-304.
25. Gilbert, Brett A. (2012). “Creative Destruction: Identifying Its Geographic Origins”.Research Policy 41: 734-742.
26. Glaeser, Edward (1994). “Cities, Information, and Economic Growth”. Cityscape 1(1): 9-47.
27. Glaeser, Edward (2011). “Which Places Are Growing? Seven Notable Trends from Newly Released Census Data”. Policy Briefs: 1-12.
28. Gould, David M. & William C. Gruben (1996). “The Role of Intellectual Property Rights in Economic Growth”. Joumal of Development Economics 48: 323-350.
29. Göçer, İsmet (2013). “Ar-Ge Harcamalarının Yüksek Teknolojili Ürün İhracatı, Dış Ticaret Dengesi ve Ekonomik Büyüme Üzerindeki Etkileri”. Maliye Dergisi (165): 215-240.
30. Gül, Erhan ve Bora Çevik (2015). “2013 Verileriyle Türkiye’de İllerin Gelişmişlik Düzeyi Araştırması”. İktisadi Araştırmalar Bölümü, Türkiye İş Bankası A.Ş. Yay. https://ekonomi.isbank.com.tr/ContentManagement/Documents/ar_07_2015.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 07.06.2016).
31. Gülmez, Ahmet ve Fatih Yardımcıoğlu (2012). “OECD Ülkelerinde Ar-Ge Harcamaları ve Ekonomik Büyüme İlişkisi: Panel Eşbütünleşme ve Panel Nedensellik Analizi (1990-2010)”. Maliye Dergisi (163): 335-353.
32. Güran, Mehmet Cahit ve Erdem Seçilmiş (2013). Ankara Kültür Ekonomisi Sektörel Büyüklüklerin Değerlendirilmesi. Ankara: T.C Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yay.
33. Hansen, Hansen K., Bjorn Asheim & Jan Vang (2009). “The European Creative Class and Regional Development: How Relevant Is Florida’s Theory for Europe?”. Creative Economies, Creative Cities: Asian-European Perspectives. Ed. L. Kong and J. O’Connor. GeoJournal Library Series 98. Dordrecht and New York:Springer.
34. Hanushek, Eric A. (2013). “Economic Growth in Developing Countries: The Role of Human Capital”. Economics of Education Review 37: 204-212.
35. Healy, Kieran (2002). “What’s New for Culture in the New Economy?”. The Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society 32(2): 86-103.
36. İzmir Kalkınma Ajansı (2013). İzmir 2012 Kültür Ekonomisi, Kültür Altyapısı Envanteri ve İzmir Kültür Ekonomisi Gelişme Stratejisi. İzmir.
37. Kačerauskas, Tomas (2015). “Technologies in Creative Economy and Creative Society”. Technological and Economic Development of Economy 21(6): 855-868.
38. Khan, Jangraiz (2015). “The Role of Research and Development in Economic Growth: A Review”. Journal of Economics Bibliography 2 (3): 128-133.
39. Kloudova, Jitka & Beata Stehlikova (2010). “Creativity Index For The Czech Republic in Terms of Regional Similarities and Geographic Location”. Economics and Management 15: 100-109.
40. Koç, Aylin (2013). “Beşeri Sermaye ve Ekonomik Büyüme İlişkisi: Yatay Kesit Analizi ile AB Ülkeleri Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme”. Maliye Dergisi 165: 241-258.
41. Landry, Charles (2007). Creativity and The City. The Urban Reinventors Paper Series.
42. Landry, Charles & Franco Bianchini (1998). “The Creative City”. Demos. UK.
43. Langinier, Corinne & GianCarlo Moschini (2002). “The Economics of Patents: An Overview”. Working Paper 02-WP 293. Center for Agricultural and Rural Development Iowa State University. 1-26.
44. Lazzeretti, Rafael, Boix & Francesco Capone (2008). “Do Creative Industries Cluster? Mapping Creative Local Production Systems in Italy and Spain”. Industry and Innovation 15 (5): 549-567.
45. Lazzeretti, Luciana, Capone Francesco & Erdem Seçilmiş (2014). “Türkiye’de Yaratıcı ve Kültürel Sektörlerin Yapısı”. Maliye Dergisi (166): 195-220.
46. McCann, S. J. H. (2011). “Florida Creativity Index Scores, Conservatism, and Openness in 268 U.S. Regions”. Psychological Reports 108(1): 104-108.
47. Mincer, Jacob (1981). “Human Capital and Economic Growth”. NBER Working Paper Series. No 803: 1-30.
48. Mincer, Jacob (1995). “Economic Development, Growth of Human Capital, and the Dynamics of the Wage Structure”. 1994-95 Discussion Paper Series. No 744: 1-38.
49. Nathan, Max, Andy Pratt & Ana Rincon–Aznar (2015). “Creative Economy Employment in the EU and the UK A Comparative Analysis”. Nesta. https://www.nesta.org.uk/report/creative-economy-employment-in-the-eu-and-uk-acomparative-analysis/ (Erişim Tarihi: 07.06.2016).
50. Nathan, Max et al. (2016). “Creative Economy Employment in the US, Canada and the UK a Comparative Analysis”. Nesta. https://www.nesta.org.uk/report/ creative-economy-employment-in-the-us-canada-and-the-uk/ (Erişim Tarihi: 07.06.2016).
51. OECD (2011). ISIV Review 3. Technology Intensity Definition, Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry Economic Analysis and Statistics Division. Erişim: www.oecd.org/sti/ind/48350231.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 05.04.2015).
52. OECD Statistics. https://data.oecd.org/eduatt/adult-education-level.htm (ErişimTarihi: 25.09.2016).
53. Özcan, Burcu ve Ayşe Arı (2014). “Araştırma-Geliştirme Harcamaları ve Ekonomik Büyüme ilişkisi: Panel Veri Analizi”. Maliye Dergisi (166): 39-56.
54. Power, Dominic & Tobias Nielsén (2010). Priority Sector Report: Creative and Cultural Industries, European Commission, Enterprise and Industry, deliverable D9-1. https://ec.europa.eu/growth/content/priority-sector-report-creative-andcultural-industries-0_en (Erişim Tarihi: 07.06.2016).
55. Pratt, Andy (2008). “Creative Cities: The Cultural Industries And The Creative Class”. Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography 90 (2): 107–117.
56. Seçilmiş, Erdem (2015). “Türkiye’de Yaratıcı Endüstrilerin Kümelenmesi”. Ege Akademik Bakış 15(1): 9-18.
57. Serel, Hicran ve Kaan Masatçı (2005). “Türkiye’de Beşeri Sermaye ve İktisadi Büyüme İlişkisi: Ko-Entegrasyon Analizi”. İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi 19(2): 49-58.
58. SGK Sosyal Güvenlik Kurumu Yıllıkları. http://www.sgk.gov.tr/wps/portal/sgk/tr/kurumsal/istatistik/sgk_istatistik_ yilliklari (Erişim Tarihi: 07.06.2016)
59. Simonen, Jaakko, Rauli Svento & Artti Juutinen (2015). “Specialization and Diversity as Drivers of Economic Growth: Evidence From High-Tech Industries”. Papers in Regional Science 94 (2): 229-247.
60. Stam, Erik, Jeroen P. J. de Jong & Gerard Marlet (2008). “Creative Industries in the Netherlands: Structure, Development, Innovativeness and Effects on Urban Growth”. Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography 90 (2): 119–132.
61. Ström, Patrick & Rose Nelson (2010). “Dynamic Regional Competitiveness In The Creative Economy: Can Peripheral Communities Have A Place?”. The Service Industries Journal 30 (4): 497–511.
62. Şimşek, Muammer ve Cem Kadılar (2010). ”Türkiye’de Beşeri Sermaye, İhracat ve Ekonomik Büyüme Arasındaki İlişkinin Nedensellik Analizi”. C.Ü. İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi 11(1): 115-140.
63. Thompson, Mark A. & Francis W. Rushing (1999). “An Empirical Analysis of the Impact of Patent Protection on Economic Growth: An Extension”. Journal of Economic Development 24 (1): 67-76.
64. TPE Türk Patent Enstitüsü. http://www.tpe.gov.tr/TurkPatentEnstitusu/statistics (Erişim Tarihi: 04.04.2016)
65. TÜBİTAK Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Araştırma Kurumu. http://www.tubitak.gov.tr/tr/destekler/akademik/ulusal-destek-programlari/ icerik-akademikdestek-istatistikleri (Erişim Tarihi: 04.04.2016)
66. TÜİK Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu. http://biruni.tuik.gov.tr/medas (Erişim Tarihi: 05.04.2016)
67. Türedi, Salih (2016). “The Relationship between R&D Expenditures, Patent Applications and Growth: A Dynamic Panel Causality Analysis for OECD Countries”. Anadolu Üniversitesi SBE Dergisi 16: 39-48.
68. UNCTAD (2010). “Creative Economy: A Feasible Development Option”. http://unctad.org/es/Docs/ditctab20103_en.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 20.08.2013)
69. WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization (2015). IP Facts and Figures,Economics & Statistics Series. https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/series/index.jsp?id=36 (Erişim Tarihi: 07.06.2016).
70. World Bank. “High-Technology Exports (US$)”. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/TX.VAL.TECH.CD, (Erişim Tarihi: 25.09.2016)
71. World Bank. “Research and Development Expenditure (% of GDP)”. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS (Erişim Tarihi: 25.09.2016)