Developing and Validating a Computational Thinking Skills Test for 2nd Graders in Turkish Primary Schools

Öz

Computational Thinking (CT) is widely recognized as a critical skill for 21st-century learning, yet there is a lack of valid assessment tools for early primary students. To address this gap, the present study developed and validated a Turkish CT assessment tool designed specifically for second-grade students. The test development process included expert evaluations and two pilot studies conducted with a total of 667 students from public primary schools in Istanbul, Turkey. Exploratory Factor Analysis revealed a robust two-factor structure consisting of CT concepts and CT practices. Student response data supported this structure, resulting in a 12-item, two-factor model (TLI = .966, CFI = .973, RMSEA = .017). The findings indicate that the assessment is a reliable instrument for identifying early CT skills and supporting curriculum design. However, the reliance on a convenience sample from a single metropolitan area may limit the generalizability of the results to other educational contexts.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Computational thinking assessment
• primary education
• cognitive assessment
• programming
• computer science education

İlkokul 2. Sınıf Öğrencileri İçin Bilgi-işlemsel Düşünme Becerileri Testinin Geliştirilmesi ve Geçerlenmesi

Öz

Bilgi-işlemsel Düşünme (BİD), 21. yüzyıl öğrenmesi için kritik bir beceri olarak yaygın biçimde kabul edilmesine rağmen, erken ilkokul düzeyindeki öğrenciler için geçerli ölçme araçları sınırlıdır. Bu boşluğu gidermek amacıyla, bu çalışmada ikinci sınıf öğrencileri için özel olarak tasarlanmış Türkçe bir BİD ölçme aracı geliştirilmiş ve geçerlik–güvenirlik çalışmaları yapılmıştır. Test geliştirme süreci, uzman değerlendirmelerini ve İstanbul!daki devlet ilkokullarında öğrenim gören toplam 667 öğrenciyle yürütülen iki pilot çalışmayı kapsamaktadır. Açımlayıcı Faktör Analizi, BİD kavramları ve BİD uygulamaları olmak üzere sağlam bir iki faktörlü yapı ortaya koymuştur. Öğrenci yanıtlarına dayalı analizler bu yapıyı desteklemiş ve 12 maddeden oluşan iki faktörlü bir model elde edilmiştir (TLI = .966, CFI = .973, RMSEA = .017). Bulgular, geliştirilen ölçme aracının erken dönem BİD becerilerini belirlemede ve program geliştirmeyi desteklemede güvenilir bir araç olduğunu göstermektedir. Ancak, tek bir metropol bölgeden seçilen uygun örnekleme dayanılması, bulguların genellenebilirliğini sınırlayabilir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• ilkokul eğitimi
• bilişsel değerlendirme
• programlama
• bilgisayar bilimi eğitimi
• bilgi-işlemsel düşünme değerlendirmesi

Kaynakça

1. Babazadeh, M., & Negrini, L. (2022). How is computational thinking assessed in European K-12 education? A systematic review. International Journal of Computer Science Education in Schools, 5(4), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.21585/ijcses.v5i4.138
2. Barr, V., & Stephenson, C. (2011). Bringing computational thinking to K-12: What is involved and what is the role of the computer science education community? ACM Inroads, 2(1), 48-54.
3. Bentler, P. M., & Chou, C. (1987). Practical issues in structural equation modeling. Sociological Methods and Research, 16, 78–117.
4. Bers, M. U., Gonzalez-Gonzalez, C., & Armas-Torres, M. A. (2019). Coding as a playground: Promoting positive learning experiences in childhood classrooms. Computers & Education, 138, 130–145.
5. Brennan, K., & Resnick, M. (2012). New frameworks for studying and assessing the development of computational thinking. In Proceedings of the 2012 annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association (pp. 1–25).
6. Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 137–162). Sage.
7. Cicchetti, D. V. (1994). Guidelines, criteria, and rules of thumb for evaluating normed and standardized assessment instruments in psychology. Psychological Assessment, 6, 284–290. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.6.4.284.
8. Crocker, L. & Algina, J. (1986). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

9. Cronbach, L. J. (1971). Test validation. In R. L. Thorndike (Ed.), Educational Measurement (2nd ed., pp. 443–507). American Council on Education
10. Demir, Ö., & Seferoğlu, S. S. (2019). Developing a Scratch-based coding achievement test. Information and Learning Sciences, 120(5-6), 383–406. https://doi.org/10.1108/ILS-08-2018-0078
11. Denning, P. J. (2010). Computational thinking. Communications of the ACM, 53(8), 27–29.
12. Doleck, T., Bazelais, P., Lemay, D.J., Saxena, A.K., & Basnet, R.B. (2017). Algorithmic thinking, cooperativity, creativity, critical thinking, and problem solving: Exploring the relationship between computational thinking skills and academic performance. Journal of Computers in Education, 4, 355-369.
13. El-Hamamsy, L., Zapata-Cáceres, M., Martín-Barroso, E., Francesco, M., Dehler Zufferey, J., Bruno, B., & Roman-Gonzalez, M. (2025). The competent computational thinking test (cCTt): A valid, reliable and gender-fair test for longitudinal CT studies in grades 3–6. Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 30, 1607–1661. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-024-09777-8
14. Eryılmaz, S., & Deniz, G. (2019). Türkiye’de programlama eğitimi ile ilgili yapılan çalışmaların incelenmesi: Bir betimsel analiz çalışması. Eğitimde Kuram ve Uygulama, 15(4), 319–338. https://doi.org/10.17244/eku.645387
15. Gay, L. R., Mills, G. E., & Airasian, P. W. (2012). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and application. (10th ed.). Pearson, Upper Saddle River.
16. Grover, S., & Pea, R. (2013). Computational thinking in K–12: A review of the state of the field. Educational Researcher, 42(1), 38–43.
17. Guggemos, J., Seufert, S., & Roman-Gonzalez, M. (2019). Measuring computational thinking - adapting a performance test and a self-assessment instrument for German-speaking countries. In D. G. Sampson, D. Ifenthaler, P. Isaias, & M. L. Mascia (Eds). Proceedings of 16th International Conference on Cognition and Exploratory Learning in Digital Age (CELDA’2019), (pp. 183–191). https://doi.org/10.33965/celda2019_201911L023
18. Gülbahar, Y., Kert, S. B., & Kalelioglu, F. (2019). Bilgi işlemsel düşünme becerisine yönelik öz yeterlik algısı ölçeği: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education, 10(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.16949/turkbilmat.385097
19. Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3(4), 424–453. https://doi.org/10.1037//1082-989x.3.4.424
20. João, P., Nuno, D., Fábio, S. F., & Ana, P. (2019). A cross-analysis of block-based and visual programming apps with computer science student-teachers. Education Sciences, 9(3) 181. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci9030181
21. Jöreskog, K. G. (1994). Structural equation modeling with ordinal variables. In T. W. Anderson, K. T. Fang, & I. Olkin (Eds.), Multivariate Analysis and its Applications, (pp. 297–310). Institute of Mathematical Statistics.
22. Kalelioğlu, F. & Gülbahar, Y. (2014). The effects of teaching programming via Scratch on problem solving skills: A discussion from learners’ perspective. Informatics in Education, 13, 33–50.https://doi.org/10.15388/infedu.2014.03
23. Kalelioğlu, F., & Gülbahar, Y. (2015, May 20-22). Bilge Kunduz: Uluslararası enformatik yarışması pilot uygulama sonuçları. 9th International Computer & Instructional Technologies Symposium, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey.
24. Kalelioglu, F., Gülbahar, Y., & Kukul, V. (2016). A framework for computational thinking based on a systematic research review. Baltic Journal of Modern Computing, 4(3), 583-596. Retrieved from: https://www.bjmc.lu.lv/fileadmin/user_upload/lu_portal/projekti/bjmc/Contents/4_3_15_Kalelioglu.pdf
25. Karabak, D., & Güneş, A. (2013). Curriculum proposal for first class secondary school students in the field of software development. Journal of Research in Education and Teaching, 2(3), 163–169.
26. Kong, S. C., & Liu, B. (2020). A performance-based assessment platform for developing computational thinking concepts and practices: EasyCode. Bulletin of the Technical Committee on Learning Technology, 20(2), 3–10. ISSN: 2306-0212
27. Li, H., & Zhang, X. (2025). Developing and validating a digital test of preschool children’s computational thinking skills. Education and Information Technologies. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-025-13745-9
28. Metin, Ş., Başaran, M., Seheryeli, M. Y., Relkin, E., & Kalyenci, D. (2024). Adaptation of the computational thinking skills assessment tool (TechCheck-K) in early childhood. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 33(3), 365–382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-023-10089-2
29. Ministry of National Education [MoNE]. (2018). ICT curriculum. Retrieved from: https://mufredat.meb.gov.tr/Dosyalar/2018813171732131-4-2018-91%20Bili%C5%9Fim%20Teknolojileri%20ve%20Yaz%C4%B1l%C4%B1m%20(1-4.%20S%C4%B1n%C4%B1flar).pdf
30. Morales-Navarro, L., Fields, D. A., & Kafai, Y. B. (2021). Growing mindsets: Debugging by design to promote students’ growth mindset practices in computer science class. In E. de Vries, Y. Hod, & J. Ahn (Eds.). Proceedings of the 15th International Conference of the Learning Sciences, (pp. 362–369). International Society of Learning Sciences.
31. Mullis, I. V., Martin, M. O., Ruddock, G. J., O'Sullivan, C. Y., & Preuschoff, C. (2009). TIMSS 2011 assessment frameworks. International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement.
32. Mumcu, F., Andic, B., Maricic, M., Tejera, M., & Lavicza, Z. (2025). Unpacking teachers' value beliefs about computational thinking and programming. Journal of Educational Technology and Online Learning, 8(1), 41–63. https://doi.org/10.31681/jetol.1497284
33. Ocampo, L. M., Corrales-Álvarez, M., Cardona-Torres, S. A., & Zapata-Cáceres, M. (2024). Systematic review of instruments to assess computational thinking in early years of schooling. Education Sciences, 14(10), 1124. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14101124
34. Pallant, J. (2016). SPSS survival manual. Open University Press
35. Parker, M. C., Kao, Y. S., Saito-Stehberger, D., Franklin, D., Krause, S., Richardson, D., & Warschauer, M. (2021). Development and Preliminary Validation of the Assessment of Computing for Elementary Students (ACES). SIGCSE 2021 - Proceedings of the 52nd ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 10–16. https://doi.org/10.1145/3408877.3432376
36. Relkin, E., de Ruiter, L., & Bers, M. U. (2020). TechCheck: Development and validation of an unplugged assessment of computational thinking in early childhood education. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 29(4), 482–498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-020-09831-x
37. Relkin, E., & Bers, M. (2021). TechCheck-K: A measure of computational thinking for kindergarten children. In 2021 IEEE global engineering education conference (EDUCON) (pp. 1696–1702). IEEE.
38. Román-González, M. (2015). Computational thinking test: Design guidelines and content validation. Proceedings of the 7th Annual International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies (EDULEARN 2015), 2436–2444. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.4203.4329
39. Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2010). A beginner’s guide to structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). Taylor and Francis Group, LLC. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467985x.2012.01045_12.x
40. Tang, X., Yin, Y., Lin, Q., Hadad, R., Zhai, X. (2020). Assessing computational thinking: A systematic review of empirical studies. Computers & Education, 148(2020), 103798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103798
41. Threekunprapa, A., & Yasri, P. (2020). Unplugged coding using flowblocks for promoting computational thinking and programming among secondary school students. International Journal of Instruction, 13(3), 207–222. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2020.13314a
42. Tsai, M. J., Chien, F. P., Wen-Yu Lee, S., Hsu, C. Y., & Liang, J. C. (2022). Development and validation of the computational thinking test for elementary school students (CTT-ES): Correlate CT competency with CT disposition. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 60(5), 1110–1129. https://doi.org/10.1177/07356331211051043
43. Tsai, M. J., Liang, J. C., & Hsu, C. Y. (2021). The computational thinking scale for computer literacy education. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 59(4), 579–602. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633120972356
44. Tsai, M. J., Wang, C. Y., & Hsu, P. F. (2019). Developing the computer programming self-efficacy scale for computer literacy education. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 56(8), 1345–1360. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633117746747
45. Ullman, J. B. (2001). Structural equation modeling. In B. G. Tabachnick, & L. S. Fidell (Eds.), Using multivariate statistics. Pearson Education.
46. Voogt, J., Fisser, P., Good, J., Mishra, P., & Yadav, A. (2015). Computational thinking in compulsory education: Towards an agenda for research and practice. Education and Information Technologies, 20(4), 715-728.
47. Weintrop, D., Wise Rutstein, D., Bienkowski, M., & McGee, S. (2021). Assessing computational thinking: An overview of the field. Computer Science Education, 31(2), 113–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/08993408.2021.1918380
48. Wing, J. (2006). Computational thinking. Communications of the ACM, 49(3), 33. https://doi.org/10.1145/1118178.1118215
49. Wing, J. M. (2008). Computational thinking and thinking about computing. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 366(1881), 3717–3725. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2008.0118
50. Xiang, S., Li, J. W., & Yang, W. (2025). Developing a robot-based computational thinking assessment for young children. Education and Information Technologies, 30, 14447–14469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-025-13377-z
51. Yadav, A., Hong, H., & Stephenson, C. (2016). Computational thinking for all: Pedagogical approaches to embedding 21st century problem solving in K-12 classrooms. TechTrends, 60(6), 565-568.
52. Zapata-Cáceres, M., Marcelino, P., El-Hamamsy, L., & Martín-Barroso, E. (2024). A Bebras Computational Thinking (ABC-Thinking) program for primary school: Evaluation using the competent computational thinking test. Education and Information Technologies, 29(12), 14969–14998. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12441-w
53. Zapata Cáceres, M., Roman-Gonzalez, M., & Martín-Barroso, E. (2021). BCTt: Beginners computational thinking test. In Understanding computing education (Vol 1). Proceedings of the Raspberry Pi Foundation Research Seminar series.
54. Zapata-Cáceres, M., Martin-Barroso, E., & Roman-Gonzalez, M. (2020). Computational thinking test for beginners: Design and content validation. In IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference, EDUCON, (pp. 1905–1914). IEEE.
55. Zeng, Y., Yang, W., & Bautista, A. (2023). Computational thinking in early childhood education: Reviewing the literature and redeveloping the three-dimensional framework. Educational Research Review, 39, 100520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100520