ON THE MISSING NAVIGATIONAL MARKERS –BEACON TOWERS-PHAROS OF ANTIQUITY – AND NOTICE OF TWO EXTANT SMALL MARKER BEACON TOWERS OF ROMAN LATE IST C.B.C.–EARLY IST C.A.D.ANEMORIUM

Öz

This article addresses the importance, in the well documented practice in antiquity of nocturnal navigation, of marker-beacons/pharos for navigation. It suggests the presence of a Pharonic territorial marker on the conse­quently named Pharos Island from c. 1400 B.C. marking the port of Rhacotis, with the tower standing in the IVth c. B.C. noted in Arrian’s Anabasis being its probable replacement, prior to the construction of the Hellenistic Pharos. It suggests that maritime place-names beginning with the letters Pha/Phar, such as, Pharsalos, indicate the former presence of harbour marker lights, in this case with salos meaning an open roadstead. The matter of the importance of the size of the marker structure relative to the surround­ing topography, the number of light sources, possible fuels employed, and if these marker-beacons functioned at night in winter are raised. The article concludes with remarks upon two late Ist c. B.C. or early Ist c. A.D. in-situ structures at the Cilician port city of Anemorium, previously published as examples of, “a unique form of conical tomb”, which seem rather to be markers on the hillside for the probable landing quay below them, their relative heights reminding of the pharos and anti-pharos marking a harbour entrance in antiquity.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Anemorium • Navigational Marker-Beacons •

SEYİRLERE IŞIK TUTAN KAYIP İŞARETLER – ANTİKÇAĞ’DA PHAROS’LAR İLE SİNYAL KULELERİ – VE M.Ö. I. YÜZYILIN SONU – M.S. I. YÜZYILIN BAŞINDA ROMA DÖNEMİ ANEMORIUM’UNDAN GÜNÜMÜZE ULAŞAN İKİ KÜÇÜK SİNYAL KULESİNE İLIŞKİN NOTLAR

Öz

Bu makale, gece deniz yolculuğunun antikçağda iyi bir şekilde belgelenmiş yöntemi içerisinde deniz yolculuğu açısından işaret sinyallerinin/pharos’un önemini vurgula­makta­dır. Bu, Pharonic toprak varlığının işa­reti dolayısıyla ca. M.Ö. 1400’den itibaren Pharos Adası ismini alan ve Rhakotis limanını işaret ederek Hellenistik Pharos’un yapı­mından önce, ca. M.Ö. IV. yüzyılda ayakta duran kulesiyle Arrianus’un Anabasis’inde belirtilen bir kulenin varlığı ileri sürülebilir. Pharsalos gibi Pha/Phar harfleriyle başla­yan denizcilik isimleri liman işaret ışıklarının daha önceki varlığını gösterdiğini akla getir­mek­tedir. Bu du­rumda salos açık bir liman anlamı vermektedir. İşaret yapı­sı­nın/kulesinin büyüklüğünün önemi çevredeki topograf­yayla ilişkilidir. Işık kaynak­larının sayısı, kullanılan olası yakıtlar ve eğer fenerlerde bu işaret sinyalleri kış gecele­rinde de faaliyet gösteriyorsa önemi daha da artar. Makale, daha önce “konik mezarın ünik bir formu”nun örneği olarak yayınla­nan Kilikia liman kenti Anemo­rium’da in-situ halindeki altında muhtemelen iniş iskelesi için işaret­lerden ziyade geç antikçağdaki bir liman girişi işaret olarak pharos ve anti-pharos’u hatırlatan göreceli yükseklikleri görünmekte olan yapıların, geç M.Ö. I. yüzyıl ya da erken M.S. I. yüzyıla tarihleme görüşleriyle sona ermektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Anemorium • Deniz yolculuğu

Kaynakça

1. Aiskh. Ag. (= Aiskhylos, Agamemnon) Agamemnon, Libation-Berarers, Eumenides, Fragments. With an English translation by H. W. Smyth, appendix by H. Lloyd-Jones, vol. II. Cambridge, Mass.-London, vol. II 200613 (The Loeb Classical Library).
2. (= Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum Libri) Ammianus Marcellinus. With an English translation by J. C. Rolfe, vols I- III. Cambridge, Mass.-London, vols I 20058, II 20067, III 20017 (The Loeb Classical Library).
3. (= Apollodorus, Epitome) Epitome. With an English Translation by J. G. Frazer, vol. I-II. Cambridge, Mass.-London vol. II. 20029 (The Loeb Classical Library).
4. (= Appianus, Bella civilia) Appian’s Roman History. With an English translation by H. White I-IV. Cambridge, Mass.-London 1912-1913 (The Loeb Classical Library).
5. (= Arrianus, Anabasis) Arrian. With an English translation by P. A. Brunt, vols I-II. Cambridge, Mass.-London, vols I 20045, II 2000 (The Loeb Classical Library).
6. (= Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheke Historike) Diodorus of Sicily. With an English translation by C. H. Oldfather, vols I- VI; C. L. Sherman, vol. VII; C. Bradford Welles, vol. VIII, R. M. Geer, vols IX-X; Francis R. Walton vols XI-XII. Cambridge, Mass.-London, vols I 2004, II 20068, III 20006, IV 20026, V 20015, VI 20015, VII 20016
7. VIII 20035, IX 19844, X 20026, XI 19994, XII 20013 (The Loeb Classical Library). (= Euripides, Helen)
8. Helen. Edited and translated by D. Kovacs, vol. V. Cambridge, Mass.- London 2002 (The Loeb Classical Library).

9. (= Herodotos, Historiae) Herodotus. With an English translation by A. D. Godley, vols. I-IV. Cambridge, Mass.-London vols I 200412, II 200010, III 200611, IV 20018
10. (The Loeb Classical Library). Herodotos, Herodot Tarihi. Çev.: M. Ökmen-A. Erhat. İstanbul 19912. (= Homeros, İlyada)
11. Used in the text and translation: Iliad. Translated by A. T. Murray, revised by William F. Wyatt, vols I-II. Cambridge, Mass.-London, vols I , II 20013 (The Loeb Classical Library).
12. (= Homeros, Odysseia) Odyssey. Translated by A. T. Murray, revised by George E. Dimock, vols I-II. Cambridge, Mass.-London, vols I 20024, II 20044 (The Loeb Classical Library).
13. (= Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Carmina) Epistulae, Carmina (Q. Horati Flacci Opera, Ed. F. Klingner, 1959).
14. (= Flavius Iosephus Historicus, Antiquitates Iudaicae) The Jewish Antiquities. With an English translation by H. St. J. Thackeray IV-IX. London, New York 1930-1939 (The Loeb Classical Library).
15. (= Flavius Iosephus Historicus, Bellum Iudaium) The Jewish War. With an English translation by H. St. J. Thackeray II-III. London, New York 1927-1928 (The Loeb Classical Library).
16. (= Livius, Ab Urbe Condita) perioch. (= Ab urbe condita librorum periochae) Livy. History of Rome. With an English translation by B. O. Foster, vols I- V; F. G. Moore, vols VI-VIII; Evan T. Sage, vols IX-XI; A. C. Schlesinger, vols XII-XIV. Cambridge, Mass.-London, vols I 200211, II 20048, III , IV 20068, V 20019, VI 19996, VII 20047, VIII 19955, IX 20037, X , XI 2000, XII 19916, XIII 20005, XIV 20044 (The Loeb Classical Library).
17. (= Pausanias, Periegesis tes Hellados) Used in the text and translation: Pausanian Description of Greece. With an English translation by W. H. Jones, vols I-V. Cambridge, Mass.- London, vols I 200410, II 20007, III 19887, IV 20008, V 20058 (The Loeb Classical Library).
18. (= Philo of Alexandria, De Vita Mosis-I) Life of Moses. A Treatise on the Life of Moses, that is to say, On the Theology and Prophetic Office of Moses, English translation by C. D. Yonge, II. London 1855.
19. Eroico von Filostrato l'Asiatico, V. Rossi, Venezia, (Marsilio) 1997.
20. (= Philostratus “Younger”, De Imagines) de Imag. (= De Imagines) Cal. (= Callistratus) Philostratus, Imagines; Callistratus. With an English translation by A. Fairbanks. Ed. J. Henderson. Cambridge, Mass.-London 20006 (The
21. Loeb Classical Library). (= G. Plinius Secundus “Yaşlı”, Naturalis Historia) Pliny Natural History. With an English translation by H. R. Rackham, W. H. S. Jones, D. E. Eichholz, vols, I-X. Cambridge, Mass.-London, vols I , II 19996, III 20067, VI 20056, V 20046, VI 20056, VII 19924, VIII , IX 20037, X 20065 (The Loeb Classical Library).
22. (= Plutarkhos, De Faciae) Plutarch’s Moralia. With an English translation by F. C. Babbitt-W. C. Helmbold I-XIV. London, New York 1928-1967 (The Loeb Classical Library).
23. (=Plutarkhos, Pyhrros) Plutarch’s Lives. With an English translation by B. Perrin, vols I-XI. Cambridge, Mass.-London, vols I 20059, II 20018, III 20019, IV 20007, V , VI 20017, VII 19999, VIII 19899, IX 20027, X 20006, XI 20027 (The
24. Loeb Classical Library). (= Stephanos Byzantios, Ethnika) Stephani Byzantii, Ethnikon. Ed. A. Westermann. Libsae 1839.
25. (= Strabon, Geographika) The Geography of Strabo. With an English translation by H. L. Jones, vols I-VIII. Cambridge, Mass.-London, vols I 20058, II 19996, III 20017, IV , V 20006, VI 20006, VII 19956, VIII 20018 (The Loeb Classical Library). Suet.
26. (= Suetonius, De Vitae Caesarum) Tib. (= Tiberius) Cal. (= Caligula) Claud. (= Claudius) The Lives of the Caesars. The Lives of the Caesars. Edited and translated by J. C. Rolfe, vols. I-II. Cambridge, Mass.-London 20014 (The Loeb Classical Library). (= Tacitus, Annales)
27. The Annals. With an English translation by J. Jackson, vols IV-V. Cambridge, Mass.-London, vols IV 20068, V 19999 (The Loeb Classical Library).
28. (= Tacitus, Historia) The Histories. With an English translation by C. H. Moore I-II. Cambridge, Mass.-London 1968 (The Loeb Classical Library).
29. Tacitus, The Histories. With an English translation by K. Wellesley. London 1989. (= Thukydides)
30. Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. With an English transla- tion by C. F. Smith, vols I-IV. Cambridge, Mass.-London, vols I 200311, II , III 20069, IV 20039 (The Loeb Classical Library).
31. (= Vitruvius, De Architectura) On Architecture. With an English translation by F. Granger I-II. London- New York 1931-1934 (The Loeb Classical Library). Medieval Sources al-Baghdadi 1965
32. ‘Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, The Eastern Key, Kitab al-ifadah wa‘l-Itibar. Trans.: K. Hafuth Zand – J. A. – I. E. Videan. London 1965.
33. Al Hariri of Basra, The Makamat or Rhetorical Anecdotes of Al Hariri of Basra. Trans.: T. Preston. London 1986.
34. Benjamin of Tudela, The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela (1907). Trans.
35. Commentary, N. M. Adler 2005 [EBook #14981].
36. Evliya Çelebi Seyhatnamesi-Hac Kitabi. Trans.: A. Y. Yıldırım - Z. S. Berktas. İstanbul 2010.
37. Lionardo di Niccolo Frescobaldi, Giorgio Gucci – Simone Sigoli, Visit to the Holy Places of Egypt, Sinai, Palestine, and Syria in 1384. Trans.: T.
38. Bellorini – E. Hoade. Jerusalem 1948.
39. Petrarch, Petrarch’s Guide to the Holy Land, Itinerary to the Sepulcher of Our Lord Jesus Christ. Ed. & Trans.: T. J. Cachey, Jr. Indiana 2002.
40. The Bondage and Travels of Johann Schiltberger (1396-1427). Trans.: Cdr. J. B. Telfer. London 1879. Modern Literature
41. Ambraseys – Melville – Adams 1994
42. N. N. Ambraseys, C. P. Melville – R. D. Adams, The Seismicity of Egypt, Arabia and the Red Sea: A Historical Review. Cambridge 1994.
43. A. ch. Antonaras, “Glass lamps of the Roman and Early Christian Periods, Evidence from the Thessalonica Area”. Eds. C.-A. Roman – N. Gudea, Lychnological Acts 2, Cluj-Napoca: Editura Mega (2008) 23-30.
44. M. Arslan, “Pseudo-Skylaks: Periplous”. MJH 2, 1 (2012) 239-258.
45. N. Atasoy, 1582 Surname-i Hümayun, An Imperial Celebration. İstanbul Atasoy 1997
46. W. Ball, “The Towers of Ghur: A Ghurid ‘Maginot Line’?”. Eds. W. Ball – L. Harrow, Cairo to Kabul, Afghan and Islamic Studies presented to Ralph Pinder-Wilson. London (2002) 21-45.
47. O. B. Band, “Review of, Der römische Leuchttum von La Coruña”. By S. Hutter, IJNA 5, 1 (1976) 91-92.
48. N. Baydur, Roma Sikkeleri. İstanbul 1998.
49. F. Beaufort, Karamania or a brief description of the South Coast of Asia Minor and of the remains of Antiquity with Plans and Views etc. London R. Bedon, “Les phares antiques”. Archéologia 231 (1988) 54-66.
50. R. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Vol. 2. Leiden, Boston 2010.
51. F. Benozzo, “The Mesolithic Distillation of Pitch and its Ethnolinguistic Reflections: A Holocene Etymology for an Italian Verb”. Scritti in onore di Eric Pratt Hamp per il suo 90. compleanno, a cura di G. Belluscioe A. Mendicino, Rende, Università della Calabria (2010) 29-42.
52. R. M. Berthold, Rhodes in the Hellenistic Age. Oxford 1984.
53. BOA (T.C. Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arçivi) “Çatladıkapı'daki deniz fene- rinde yanan kandiller için zeytinyağı, fitil ve fenerci masrafının itası”. (BOA, C. AS.) 3239/69, 26 November 1824 (04/Ra/1240).
54. BOA (T.C. Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi) “Karadeniz'de Ereğli önündeki deniz fenerinin ışığını ziyadeleştirmek için yaktığı yağ miktarına zam yapıl- ması”. (BOA. C. BH.) 3325/70, 9 May 1732 (14/Za/1144).
55. K. Booth, “The Roman Pharos at Dover Castle”. English Heritage Historical Review 2 (2007) 8-21.
56. O. Bon, The Sultan’s Seraglio. London 1996.
57. L. Bouras, “Ecclesiastical Lighting”. ODB 2 (1991) 1227-1228.
58. F. Braudel, The Mediterranean in the Ancient World. London 1998.
59. Sir R. F. Burton, Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah and Meccah I. New York Burton 1964 Byron 1994 Browning 1980 Casson 1979 El-Cheikh 2001
60. R. Byron, The Road to Oxiana. London 1994.
61. R. Browning, The Byzantine Empire. London 1980.
62. L. Casson, Travel in the Ancient World. London 1979.
63. N. M. El-Cheikh, “Byzantium through the Islamic Prism from the Twelfth to the Thirteenth Centuries”. Eds. A. E. Laiou – R. P. Mottahedeh, The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World. Washington (2001) 53-69.
64. D. Christian, A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, vol. 1. Oxford 1998.
65. P. A. Clayton, “The Pharos at Alexandria”. Eds. P. A. Clayton – M. J. Price, The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. London (1989) 138-157.
66. K. A. C. Creswell, The Muslim Architecture of Egypt, vol. 1. New York Çevik – Pimouguet-Pedarros 2010
67. N. Çevik – I. Pimouguet-Pedarros, “Fortifications et systeme defensive de Myra Recherches de 2009”. Anatolia Antiqua XVIII (2010) 243-275.
68. N. Daniel, The Arabs and Medieval Europe. London, New York 1979. Daniel 1979 Davis 2009
69. D. L. Davis, Commercial Navigation in the Greek and Roman World. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,University of Texas at Austin, 2009
70. J. Delgardo, Kamikaze. London 2009. Delgardo 2009
71. Doehne – Podany – Showers 1992
72. E. Doehne, J. Podany – W. Showers, “Analysis of Weathered Dolomitic Marble from Thasos, Greece”. Eds. N. Herz – L. Moens, Ancient Stones: Quarrying, Trade and Provenance: Interdisciplinary Studies. Leuven (1992) 179-90.
73. C. M. Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta I. Delhi 1990.
74. T. M. P. Duggan, “A short account of recorded calamities (earthquakes and plagues) in Antalya and related areas over the past 2,300 years-an incomplete list, comments and observations”. Adalya 7 (2004) 123-170.
75. T. M. P. Duggan, “Supplementary data to be added to the chronology of plague and earthquakes in Antalya Province and in adjacent and related areas”. Adalya 8 (2005) 357-398.
76. T. M. P. Duggan, “The Lycian port of Patara and its environs during the th and 14th centuries – an interpretation”. Gephyra 7 (2010) 47-71.
77. T. M. P. Duggan “Some Localizations in Western Cilicia Relating to the Campaign of Sultan Alaed-Din Keykubat”. Ed. M. Kadiroğlu, Anadolu ve Çevresinde Ortaçağ 5 (2012) 221-238.
78. T. M. P. Duggan, Antalya’nın Gizli Tarihi. Çev. M. Oktan, for the emended chronology. Antalya (forthcoming). T. M. P. Duggan – A. Aygün, “Myra’nın Ortaçağ ve Sonrasındaki Limanı ‘Taşdibi-Stamira’”. Ed. N. Çevik, Arkeolojisinden Doğasına Myra/Demre ve Çevresi. Antalya (2010) 161-168.
79. Duggan – Aygün (forthcoming) T. M. P. Duggan – A. Aygün, “The Medieval and later harbor of Myra – Stamira-Taşdibi”. Proc. of the Mediterranean Harbor Symposium, Istanbul, May 2011 (forthcoming).
80. F. el Fakharani, “The ‘Lighthouse’ of Abusir in Egypt”. HSPh 78 (1974) 272.
81. C. Fellows, An account of discoveries in Lycia. London 1840.
82. E. Fentress et al., The Roman Port and Fishery of Cosa: a Center of Ancient Trade. Princeton, New Jersey 1987.
83. C. Fernandez-Chicarro, “Chipiona”. PECS 1976.
84. J. Finnegan, The Archaeology of the New Testament-The Mediterranean World of the Early Christian Apostles. London 1981.
85. C. Foss, Survey of Medieval Castles in Anatolia I: Kutahya. Oxford 1985.
86. C. Foss, “Beacons”. ODB 1 (1991) 273-274.
87. A Shi’ite Pilgrimage to Mecca 1885-1886, the Safarnameh of Mirza
88. Mohammad Hosayn Farahani. Trans. H. Farmayan-E. L. Daniel, London 1990.
89. L. Franco, “History of Coastal Engineering in Italy”. Ed. N. C. Kraus, History and Heritage of Coastal Engineering. New York (1996) 275-335.
90. J. Freely, The Western Mediterranean Coast of Turkey, İstanbul, 1997.
91. J. Freely, The Eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. İstanbul 1998.
92. G. de Gaury, Rulers of Mecca. London 1951. Gaury 1951 Giardina 2010
93. B. Giardina, Navigare necesse est Lighthouses from Antiquity into the Middle Ages. BAR Int.Ser. 2096. Oxford 2010.
94. J. Gimpel, The Medieval Machine, The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages. London 1977.
95. G. Goodwin, A History of Ottoman Architecture. London 1992.
96. E. Greer, “Greek Fire”, ODB 2 (1991) 873. Greer 1991
97. Guidoboni, Comastri – Traina 1994
98. Eds. E. Guidoboni, A. Comastri – G. Traina, Catalogue of ancient earthquakes in the Mediterranean area up to the 10th century. Rome 1994.
99. J. F. Haldon, Byzantium in the 7th century - The transformation of a culture. Cambridge 1997.
100. S. Handler, “Architecture on the Roman Coins of Alexandria”. AJA 75/1 (1971) 57-74.
101. A. Y. al-Hassan – D.R. Hill, Islamic Technology. Cambridge 1986.
102. F. W. Hasluk, Christianity and Islam under the Sultans I. New York 1973.
103. H. H. Hatipoğlu, Orta Çağda Akdeniz’de Deniz Güçlerinin İncelenmesi. İstanbul 2005.
104. R. Heikell, Turkish Waters and Cyprus Pilot. St. Ives, Cambridgeshire R. Higgins, “The Colossus of Rhodes”. Eds. P. A. Clayton – M. J. Price, The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. London (1989) 124-137.
105. R. Hillenbrand, Islamic Architecture-Form, Function and Meaning. Edinburgh 2000.
106. P. K. Hitti, History of the Arabs. London 1991.
107. R. L. Hohlfelder – R. L. Vann, “Uncovering the secrets of Aperlae – a coastal settlement in Lycia”. Journal of Near East Archaeology 61 (1998) 37.
108. G. F. Hourani, Arab Seafaring. Princeton, New Jersey 1995.
109. S. Hutter, Der römashe leuchtturm von la Coruna, Madrider Beiträge 3. Mainz 1973.
110. F. Işık, ‘Caput Gentis Lyciae’ Patara Capital of the Lycian League. İstanbul İşkan-Işık – Eck – Engelmann 2008
111. H. İşkan-Işık, W. Eck – H. Engelmann, “Der leuchtturm von Patara und Sex. Marcius Priscus als statthalter Der Provinz Lycia von Nero bis Vespasian”. ZPE 164 (2008) 91-121.
112. C. P. Jones, “The Inscription from the Sea Wall at Anemurium”. Phoenix , 4 (1972) 396-99.
113. M. M. du Jourdin, Europe and the Sea. Oxford 1993.
114. A. Kazhdan, “Leo the Mathematician”. ODB 2 (1991) 1217.
115. A. Kazhdan – L. Bouras, “Lighting in Everyday Life”. ODB 2 (1991) 1227.
116. H. S. Khalilieh, “The ribat System and its role in Coastal Navigation”. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 42 (1999) 212
117. H. S. Khalilieh, “The Ribāṭ of Arsūf and the Coastal Defence System in Early Islamic Palestine”. Journal of Islamic Studies 19, 2 (2008) 159-177.
118. Koehler – Wallace-Matheson 2004
119. C. G. Koehler – P. M. Wallace-Matheson, “Knidian Amphora Chronology, Pergamon to Corinth”, Eds. J. Eiring – J. Lund, Transport Amphorae and Trade in the Eastern Mediterranean. Acts of the International Colloquium at the Danish Institute at Athens, September 26- , 2002. Athens (2004) 163-169.
120. E. Krickl, Lycian Journal 1892, Istanbul 2005.
121. K. G. von Lanckoroński, Die Stadte Pamphyliens und Pisidiens I, Pamphylien. Wien 1890.
122. M. L. Lawall, “Amphoras and Hellenistic Economies: Addressing the (over) Emphasis on Stamped Amphora Handles”. Eds. Z. H. Archibald, J. K. Davies – V. Gabrielsen, Making, Moving and Managing. The New World of Ancient Economies, 323-31 B.C. Oxford (2005) 188-232.
123. Leonard – Demesticha 2004 J. R. Leonard – S. Demesticha, “Fundamental Links in the Economic
124. Chain: Local Ports and International Trade in Roman and Early Christian Cyprus”. Eds. J. Eiring – J. Lund, Transport Amphorae and Trade in the Eastern Mediterranean. Acts of the International Colloquium at the Danish Institute at Athens, September 26-29, 2002. Athens (2004) 202.
125. R. S. Lopez – I. W. Raymond, Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World. New York 1990.
126. P. Mackendrick, The Mute Stones Speak. London 1960.
127. T. Mackintosh-Smith, The Travels of Ibn Battutah. London 2002.
128. C. Mango, “Nea Ekklesia”. ODB 2 (1991) 1446.
129. Ser Marco Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo, intro. J. Masefield. London J. Marlowe, The Golden Age of Alexandria. London 1971.
130. Mas’udi, From the Meadows of Gold. Trans. P. Lunde & C. Stone, London S. Mitchell, Land, Men and Gods in Asia Minor, vol. I. Oxford 1993.
131. A. Moreno, “Hieron the Ancient Sanctuary at the Mouth of the Black Sea”. Hesperia 77 (2008) 655-709.
132. K. Nicolau, “PECS”. Soloi-1, 1976. Nicolau 1976
133. Ochoa – Cerdán – Valdés 2005
134. C. F. Ochoa, Á. M. Cerdán – Á. V. Valdés, “La Torre de Augusto en la Campa Torres (Gijón, Asturias). Las antiguas excavaciones y el epígrafe de Calpurnio Pisón”. Archivo Español de Arqueología 78 191-192 (2005) 146.
135. F. Onur, “Epigraphische Mitteilungen aus Antalya VI: The Lamp-Stand Offerings of Primipilarius Flavius Bassus to Apollo Patroos in Patara”. EA 33 (2001) 169-173.
136. F. Onur, Patara’dan Apollon’a Adanmış Yazıtlı bir Şükran Adağı Altlığı ve Patara Apollon Tapınağı Üzerine Yeni öneriler. Unpublished Under- graduate dissertation, Akdeniz University, Antalya, 1999.
137. S. Onurkan, “Observations on two types of buildings”. Eds. E. Rosen- baum, G. Huber – S. Onurkan, A Survey of Coastal Cities in Western Cilicia, Preliminary Report. Ankara (1967) 69-86
138. L. R. Palmer, Mycenaeans and Minoans: Aegean Prehistory in the Light of the Linear B Tablets. New York 1961. Pararas-Carayannis 2011
139. G. Pararas-Carayannis, “The Earthquake and Tsunami of July 21, 365 AD in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea - Review of Impact on the Ancient World - Assessment of Recurrence and Future Impact”. Science of Tsunami Hazards 30/4 (2011) 257-292.
140. P. Parker, The Empire Stops Here. London 2010.
141. J. R. Partington, A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder. Baltimore 1999.
142. D. P. S. Peacock – D. F. Williams, Amphorae and the Roman Economy. London 1991.
143. L. F. Pearson, Lighthouses. Oxford 2003.
144. M. Pendergrast, “Mirror Mirror: A Historical and Psychological Overview”. Ed. M. Anderson, The Book of the Mirror: An Inter- disciplinary Collection exploring the Cultural Story of the Mirror. Newcastle (2008) 1-15.
145. F. E. Peters, The Hajj, The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places. Princeton, New Jersey 1994.
146. D. Pieri, Le commerce du vin oriental à l'époque byzantine (IVe-VII s. ap. J.-C.). Le témoignage des amphores en Gaule. Beyrouth 2005.
147. M. J. Price – B. L. Trell, Coins and their cities, Architecture on the Ancient coins of Greece, Rome and Palestine. London 1977.
148. J. H. Pryor, Geography, Technology and War-Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649-1571. Cambridge 1992.
149. J. A. Purves, “Lighthouse Engineering at Home and Abroad”. Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland, 43rd Session 1899-1900, Glasgow (1900) 19-43.
150. J. H. Quincey, “The Beacon-Siter in the Agamemnon”. JHS 83 (1963) 132.
151. M. Redde, “Le phare d'Alexandrie”. Eds. N. Blanc – J. P. Adam, Les Dossiers d'archéologie 202, Dijon, (1995) 60-65
152. J. L. Rife, “Leo’s Peleponnesian Fire-Tower and the Byzantine Watch- Tower on Acrocorinth”. Eds. W. R. Caraher, L. Jones-Hill – R. Scott- Moore, Studies in method and meaning in Archaeology and History in Roman, Medieval and post Medieval Greece in honor of Timothy E. Gregory. Farnham (2008) 281-306.
153. S. Rocca, Herod’s Judea: A Mediterranean state in the Classical World. Tübingen 2008.
154. Rosen – Galili – Zviely 2012 B. Rosen, F. Galili – D. Zviely, “The Roman Lighthouse at Akko, Israel”. IJNA 40/1 (2012) 171-178.
155. A. Alföldi-Rosenbaum, The Necropolis of Anemurion. Ankara 1971.
156. M. I. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World. Oxford 1941.
157. F. Sancar – J. Russell, “Diachronic Study of Coastal Changes at Anemurium Geomorphological and Archaeological Applications”. AST (1994) 135-152.
158. S. Şahin, “Der Neronische Leuchtturm und die Vespasianischen Thermen von Patara”. Gephyra 5 (2008) 1-31.
159. A. K. Şenol, “Geç Rhodos Amphoralarının Batı Anadolu’daki Dağılımı ve Üretim Problemleri”. Eds. E. Egi, F. Gümüşburun, Z. Özsoy – B. Yokeş, Sualtı Bilim ve Teknolojisi Toplantısı, Istanbul 17-20 Ekim 1996
160. Sualtı Bilimleri Topluluğu 96. Istanbul (1996) 165-172.
161. A. K. Şenol, “Cilician Commercial Relations with Egypt Due to the new Evidence of Amphora Finds”. Olba 16 (2008) 109-131.
162. W. Schleiermacher, “Der Romische limes in Deutschland”. Die Antike (1938) 248-252.
163. S. P. Scott, History of the Muslim Empire in Europe III. Philadelphia, London 1904.
164. M. A. Shaban, Islamic History a new interpretation, A.D. 750-1050 (A.H. 448). Cambridge 1992.
165. C. Seillier, “Le castrum e le port de Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) base de la classais Britannica (IIe-IIIe siècles)”. Eds. F. Vermeulen, K. Sas, H. Thoen – W. Dhaeze, Archaeology in confrontation: aspects of Roman military presence in the northwest: studies in honour of Prof. Em. Hugo Thoen. Ghent (2004) 201-211.
166. D. Sinor, The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge 1990.
167. O. Sönmez, Fenerler-Kıyılarımızdaki Tarihin Suskun Tanıkları. İstanbul G. Le Strange, Palestine under the Moslems, Description of Syria, from A.D. 650 to 1500. London 1890.
168. G. Le Strange, Lands of the Eastern Caliphate. Cambridge 1905.
169. B. Takmer, Lex Portorii Provinciae Lyciae. Unpublished PhD. Dissertation, Akdeniz University. Antalya 2006.
170. I. Tekeli, “Fenerbahçe”. Dünden Bugüne İstanbul Ansiklopedisi 3 (1994) 286.
171. Vann – Hohlfelder – Shedrik 1999-2000
172. R. L. Vann, R. L. Hohlfelder – K. Shedrik, “The Church Beneath the Sea at Aperlae Lycia”. Adalya 4 (1999-2000) 207-221.
173. M. Ventris – J. Chadwick, Documents in Mycenaean Greek: Three hundred selected tablets from Knossos, Pylos, and Mycenae. Cambridge Volbach 1930
174. W. F. Volbach, “Byzantinische Keramik aus Kilikien”. Monumenta Asiae Minoris Antiqua II (1930) 197-201
175. G. B. Waywell, “The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus”. Eds. P. A. Clayton – M. J. Price, The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. London (1989) 100
176. D. White, “Apollonia 2”. PECS 1976.
177. C. Wickham, The Inheritance of Rome, A History of Europe from 400 to London 2010.
178. J. Wilkinson, Jerusalem Pilgrims before the Crusades. Warminster 2002.
179. Ed. T. Wright, Early Travels in Palestine. New York: Dover, (1848) 2003
180. L. Yaacov, The Fatimid Navy and the Crusades 1099-1171. Tropis
181. Conference proceedings, Vol. 2 (1987) 257-8
182. S. Yarasimos, Les Voyageurs dans L’empire Ottomans XIV-XVI siècles. Ankara 1991.