THE TREATY ON THE PROHIBITION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS AND INTERNATIONAL LAW: A DESPONDENT ANALYSIS OF AN ALLEGEDLY EMERGING RULE OF CUSTOMARY LAW

Öz

The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) represents a landmark attempt to eliminate nuclear weapons by establishing a comprehensive prohibition framework. Immediately after its adoption, it was argued that the TPNW contributed to or facilitated the emergence of a new customary rule of international law prohibiting the possession, use, or threat of use of nuclear weapons. This study examines whether the prohibitions set forth in Article 1 of the TPNW have attained the status of customary international law. The study addresses two main research questions by adopting a methodology based on an examination of state practice, opinio juris, and case law. First, it examines whether the prohibitions under Article 1 possess the necessary characteristics to be recognized as customary international law. Second, it evaluates the legal status of objecting states within the framework of the persistent objector rule, in the event that the prohibitions in question are recognized as customary international law or are anticipated to achieve such status in the near future. The findings of the study show that the prohibitions envisaged by the TPNW have not yet evolved into customary international law. The primary reason for this is the lack of uniform and representative state practice, particularly among nuclear-weapon states and their allies. This research aims to contribute to the doctrine by highlighting the challenges of aligning global disarmament objectives with the strategic and security concerns of nuclear-weapon states and their allies, ultimately suggesting that the normative aspirations of the TPNW remain constrained by geopolitical realities.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Nuclear weapons
• Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW)
• customary international law
• persistent objector rule
• nuclear sharing

NÜKLEER SİLAHLARIN YASAKLANMASI ANTLAŞMASI VE ULUSLARARASI HUKUK: MEMUL BİR TEAMÜL HUKUKU KURALI ÜZERİNE MEYUS BİR İNCELEME

Öz

Nükleer Silahların Yasaklanması Antlaşması (NYSA), kapsamlı bir yasak-lama çerçevesi oluşturarak nükleer silahların ortadan kaldırılmasını hedefleyen önemli bir girişimdir. Kabulünün hemen ardından, NSYA’nın nükleer silahların bulundurulması, kullanılması veya kullanma tehdidinde bulunulmasının yasak-lanması şeklinde yeni bir teamül hukuku kuralının ortaya çıkışını sağladığı veya buna katkıda bulunduğu öne sürülmüştür. Bu çalışma, NSYA’nın 1. maddesinde yer verilen yasakların teamül hukuku statüsüne ulaşıp ulaşmadığını incelemek-tedir. Çalışma, devlet uygulaması, opinio juris ve içtihat incelemesine dayalı bir yöntem benimseyerek iki temel araştırma sorusunu ele almaktadır. İlk olarak, 1. madde kapsamındaki yasakların uluslararası teamül hukuku olarak kabul edil-mesi için gerekli özelliklere sahip olup olmadığı incelenmektedir. İkinci olarak, söz konusu yasakların teamül hukuku statüsünde olduklarının veya yakın gelecekte olacaklarının kabulü halinde, söz konusu yasaklara muhalif devletlerin hukuki durumları ısrarlı itiraz kuralı çerçevesinde değerlendirilmektedir. Çalışmanın bulguları, NSYA’nın öngördüğü yasakların henüz uluslararası teamül hukukuna dönüşmediğini göstermektedir. Bunun başlıca nedeni, özellikle nükle-er silah sahibi devletler ve müttefikleri arasında tek tip ve temsil edici bir devlet uygulamasının bulunmamasıdır. Bu araştırma, küresel silahsızlanma hedeflerini nükleer silah sahibi devletler ve müttefiklerinin stratejik ve güvenlik endişeleriyle uyumlu hale getirmenin zorluklarını vurgulayarak doktrine katkıda bulunmayı amaçlamakta ve nihayetinde NSYA’nın normatif hedeflerinin jeopolitik gerçek-lerle sınırlı kaldığını öne sürmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Nükleer silahlar
• Nükleer Silahların Yasaklanması Antlaşması (NSYA)
• uluslararası teamül hukuku
• ısrarlı itiraz kuralı
• nükleer paylaşım

Kaynakça

1. Abdullah, Sannia: “Nuclear Ethics? Why Pakistan Has Not Used Nuclear Weapons … Yet’, Washington Quarterly, Cilt: 41, Sayı: 4, 2019, s. 157-173.
2. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Preliminary Objections, 2007 I.C.J. Rep. 612-613 (24 Mayıs 2007).
3. Akande, Dapo: “Nuclear Weapons, Unclear Law? Deciphering the Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion of the International Court”, British Yearbook of International Law, Cilt: 68, Sayı: 1, 1997, s. 165-217.
4. Akkutay, Berat Lale: Uluslararası Andlaşmaların Üçüncü Devletlere Etkisi, Adalet Yayınevi, Ankara 2020.
5. Anand, Isha: “The Legality of the Use of Nuclear Weapons in Light of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) or Nuke Ban Treaty, 2021”, Jus Corpus Law Journal, Cilt: 3, Sayı: 2, 2022, s. 318-337.
6. Arajärvi, Noora: The Changing Nature of Customary International Law: Methods of Interpreting the Concept of Custom in International Criminal Tribunals, Routledge, New York 2014.
7. Arsava, A. Füsun: “Nükleer Silahların Yasaklanması Anlaşması ve NATO Anlaşması”, Türkiye Adalet Akademisi Dergisi, Sayı 56, 2023, s. 203-228.
8. Asylum (Columbia v Peru), Merits, Judgment of 20 November, 1950 ICJ Rep. 266.

9. Bederman, David J.: “Acquiescence, Objection and the Death of Customary International Law”, Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law, Cilt: 21, Sayı: 1, 2010, s. 31-46.
10. Black-Branch, Jonathan L.: The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons: Legal Challenges for Military Doctrines and Deterrence Policies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2021.
11. Blechman, Barry/Rumbaugh, Russell: “Bombs Away: The Case for Phasing out U.S. Tactical Nukes in Europe”, Foreign Affairs, Cilt: 93, Sayı: 4, 2014, s. 163-175.
12. Bonardi, Mia: ““This Is Not a Bluff”: The Need to Request a New ICJ Advisory Opinion on the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons”, Connecticut Journal of International Law, Cilt: 38, Sayı: 1, 2022, s. 2-17.
13. Borda, Aldo Zammit: “A Formal Approach to Article 38 (1)(d) of the ICJ Statute from the Perspective of the International Criminal Courts and Tribunals”, European Journal of International Law, Cilt: 24, Sayı: 2, 2013, s. 649-662.
14. Bradley, Curtis A.: “The Juvenile Death Penalty and International Law”, Duke Law Journal, Cilt: 52, Sayı: 3, 2002, s. 485-558
15. Bradley, Curtis/Gulati, Mitu: “Withdrawing From International Custom”, Yale Law Journal, Cilt: 120, Sayı: 2, 2010, s. 202-275.
16. Brussels Summit Communiqué, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_185000.htm (Erişim 13.12.2024).
17. Byers, Michael: Custom, Power and the Power of Rules, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2004.
18. Çağlayan, Sezai: “Pandemics That Generate a New Grotian Moment in International Law”, Public and Private International Law Bulletin, Cilt: 42, Sayı: 2, s. 757-775.
19. Carmody, Susan: “Balancing Collective Security and National Sovereignty: Does the United Nations Have the Right to Inspect North Korea’s Nuclear Facilities”, Fordham International Law Journal, Cilt: 18, Sayı: 1, 1994, s. 229-284.
20. Case concerning Right of Passage over Indian Territory, Merits, Judgrnent of 12 April, 1960 ICJ Reports, Dissenting Opinion of Judge Armand-Ugon.
21. Charney, Jonathan I.: “The Persistent Objector Rule and the Development of Customary International Law”, British Yearbook of International Law, Sayı 56, Sayı 1, 1985, s. 1-24.
22. Chessman, Stuart: “On Treaties and Custom: A Commentary on the Draft Restatement”, International Lawyer (ABA), Cilt: 18, Sayı: 2, 1984, s. 421-438.
23. Childers, Gavin M.: “Mutually Assured Disarmament? The Future of NATO’s Nuclear Sharing Program under the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons”, Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, Cilt: 51, Sayı: 3, 2023, s. 751-763.
24. Chodosh, Hiram E.: “Neither Treaty nor Custom: The Emergence of Declarative International Law”, Texas International Law Journal, Cilt: 26, Sayı: 1, Winter 1991, s. 87-124.
25. Choudhary, Vishaka: “The Denuclearization of South Asia: Contrasting the Viability of a Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone against Extant Deterrence Postures”, NUALS Law Journal, Cilt: 13, 2019, s. 26-50.
26. Colson, David A.: “How Persistent Must the Persistent Objector Be?”, Washington Law Review, Cilt: 61, Sayı: 3, 1986, s. 957-970.
27. D’Amato, Anthony A.: “International Soft Law, Hard Law, and Coherence”, Northwestern Public Law and Legal Theory Series, No. 08-01 (2008), http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1103915 (Erişim Tarihi: 25.10.2024).
28. D’Amato, Anthony A.: “The Concept of Special Custom in International Law”, American Journal of International Law, Cilt: 63, Sayı: 2, 1969, s. 211-223.
29. D’Amato, Anthony A.: The Concept of Custom in International Law, Cornell University Press, New York 1971.
30. D’Amato, Anthony: “Trashing Customary International Law”, American Journal of International Law, Cilt: 81, Sayı: 1, 1987, s. 101-105.
31. Defense Intelligence Agency, “Nuclear Challenges: The Growing Capabilities of Strategic Competitors and Regional Rivals”, 2024, https://www.dia.mil/Portals/110/Images/News/Military_Powers_Publications/Nuclear-Challenges-2024.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 15.10.2024).
32. Depositary Notification, The Secretary-General of the United Nations, 26 October 2020, https://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/commentaries/1_13_2018.pdf ((Erişim Tarihi: 11.10.2024).
33. Deterrence and Defence, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (13 Aralık 2024), https://www.nato.int/cps/is/natohq/topics_133127.htm (Erişim Tarihi: 13.12.2024).
34. Devine, D. J.: “The Status of Rhodesia in International Law”, Acta Juridica, Cilt: 1973, 1973, s. 109-246.
35. Dumberry, Patrick: “Incoherent and Ineffective: The Concept of Persistent Objector Revisited”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Cilt: 59, Sayı: 3, 2010, s. 779-802.
36. Elias, Olufemi: “Some Remarks on the Persistent Objector Rule in Customary International Law”, Denning Law Journal, Cilt: 6, Sayı: 1, 1991, s. 37-52.
37. Elias, Olufemi: “The Nature of the Subjective Element in Customary International Law”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Cilt: 44, Sayı: 3, 1995, s. 501-520.
38. Emir, Nergiz: Nükleer Silahların Yasaklanması Andlaşması’nın Nükleer Silahsızlanma Çabaları ve Andlaşmalar Hukuku Çerçevesinde Değerlendirilmesi, Marmara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Hukuk Araştırmaları Dergisi, Cilt: 27, Sayı: 1, 2021, s. 239-253.
39. Entous, Adam: “Russian subs patrol off U.S. East Coast: officials”, Reuters, 5 Ağustos 2009, https://www.reuters.com/article/world/us/russian-subs-patrol-off-us-east-coast-officials-idUSTRE5740DV/ (Erişim Tarihi: 13.10.2024).
40. Eruygur, Burc: “Russia, Belarus sign mutual security guarantees agreement”, Anadolu Ajansı, 6 Aralık 2024, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/russia-belarus-sign-mutual-security-guarantees-agreement/ 3416560 (Erişim Tarihi: 10.12.2024).
41. Evans, Christopher P.: “Going, Going, Gone? Assessing Iran’s Possible Grounds for Withdrawal the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons”, Journal of Conflict and Security Law, Cilt: 26, Sayı: 2, 2021, s. 309-346.
42. Fisheries (United Kingdom v Norway), Merits, Judgment of 18 December, 1951 ICJ Rep. 116.
43. Fitzmaurice, Gerald: “The Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice, 1951– 54: General Principles and Sources of Law”, British Yearbook of International Law, Cilt: 30, 1953, s. 1-70.
44. Fon, Vincy/Parisi, Francesco: “Stability and Change in International Customary Law”, Supreme Court Economic Review, Cilt: 17, 2009, s. 279-310.
45. Franckx, Erik: “Pacta Tertiis and the Agreement for the Implementation of the Straddling and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea”, Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law, Cilt: 8, 2000, s. 49-82.
46. General and Complete Disarmament, (K) Request for an Advisory Opinion from the International Court of Justice on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, G.A. Res. 49/75K, U.N. Doc. A/RES/49/75 (15 Aralık 1994).
47. Goldsmith, Jack L./Posner, Eric A.: “A Theory of Customary International Law”, The University of Chicago Law Review, Cilt: 66, Sayı: 4, 1999, s. 1113-1177.
48. Graham, Kennedy: “The TPNW Conference of Parties: What Is to Be Discussed?”, Journal for Peace and Nuclear Disarmament, Cilt: 3, Sayı: 2, 2020, s. 234-252.
49. Grant, Thomas D.. “The ILC’s Draft Conclusions on Customary International Law and the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW): Lawmaking and Its Limits in a Nuclear Age”, George Mason International Law Journal, Cilt: 13, Sayı: 2, 2022, s. 1-54.
50. Green, James A.: “India’s Status as a Nuclear Weapons Power under Customary International Law”, National Law School of India Review, Cilt: 24, Sayı: 1, 2012, s. 125-146.
51. Green, James A.: The Persistent Objector Rule in International Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2016.
52. Guldahl, Camilla G.: “The Role of Persistent Objection in International Humanitarian Law”, Nordic Journal of International Law, Cilt: 77, 2008, s. 51-86.
53. Guthrie, Grant: “Nuclear Testing Rocks the Sub-Continent: Can International Law Halt the Impending Nuclear Conflict between India and Pakistan”, Hastings International and Comparative Law Review, Cilt: 23, Sayı: 3, 2000, s. 495-526.
54. Guzman, Andrew T.: “Saving Customary International Law”, Michigan Journal of International Law, Cilt: 27, Sayı: 1, 2005, s. 116-176.
55. Guzman, Andrew T.: How International Law Works: A Rational Choice Theory, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2008.
56. Harding, Luke: “Putin Issues Nuclear Threat to Ukraine Over Plan to Host US Shield”, The Guardian, 13 Şubat 2008, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/feb/13/russia.putin (Erişim Tarihi: 13.10.2024).
57. Hayashi, Mika: “NATO’s Nuclear Sharing Arrangements Revisited in Light of the NPT and the TPNW”, Journal of Conflict and Security Law, Cilt: 26, Sayı: 3, 2021, s. 471-492.
58. Heller, Kevin Jon: “Specially-Affected States and the Formation of Custom”, American Journal of International Law, Cilt: 112, Sayı: 2, 2018, s. 191-243.
59. Henkin, Louis: “Human Rights and State Sovereignty”, Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, Cilt: 25, Sayı: 1, 1996, s. 41-45.
60. Higgins, Rosalyn: The Development of International Law Through the Political Organs of the United Nations, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1963.
61. Humphrey, John P.: “On the Foundations of International Law”, The American Journal of International Law, Cilt: 39, Sayı: 2, 1945, s. 231-243.
62. International Humanitarian Law Databases, Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Geneva, 12 August 1949, https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/gciv-1949/state-parties (Erişim Tarihi: 25.11.2024).
63. International Law Association, London Conference: Committee on Formation of Customary (General) International Law, 2000, https://www.ila-hq.org/en_GB/documents/conference-report-london-2000-2).pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 01.01.2024).
64. Jain, Isha/Seth, Bhavesh: “India’s Nuclear Force Doctrine: Through the Lens of Jus Ad Bellum”, Leiden Journal of International Law, Cilt: 32, Sayı: 1, 2019, s. 111-130.
65. Jones, Oliver: “Customary Non-Refoulement of Refugees and Automatic Incorporation into the Common Law: A Hong Kong Perspective”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Cilt: 58, Sayı: 2, 2009, s. 443-468.
66. Joyner, Daniel H.: “Why I Stopped Believing in Customary International Law”, Asian Journal of International Law, Cilt: 9, Sayı: 1, 2019, s. 31-45.
67. Kammerhofer, Jörg: “Uncertainty in the Formal Sources of International Law: Customary International Law and Some of Its Problems”, European Journal of International Law, Cilt: 15, Sayı: 3, 2004, s. 523-554.
68. Keeley, Jim: “Big Empty Spot: ‘Recognition’ and India’s Nuclear Weapon Status”, içinde Canadian Policy on Nuclear Co-operation with India: Confronting New Dilemmas, Editörler Karthika Sasikumar ve Wade L. Huntley, Simons Centre for Disarmament and Non proliferation Research, Vancouver 2007, s. 71-85.
69. Kırdım, Şahin Eray: Uluslararası Hukukta Israrlı İtiraz, On İki Levha, İstanbul, 2022.
70. Kirgis, Frederic L.: “Custom on a Sliding Scale”, American Journal of International Law, Cilt: 81, Sayı: 1, 1987, s. 146-151.
71. Kocse, Ryan: “Final Detonation: How Customary International Law Can Trigger the End of Landmines”, Georgetown Law Journal, Cilt: 103, Sayı: 3, 2015, s. 749-796.
72. Kontorovich, Eugene: “Inefficient Customs in International Law”, William and Mary Law Review, Cilt: 48, Sayı: 3, 2006, s. 859-922.
73. Koplow, David A.: “Parsing Good Faith: Has the United States Violated Article VI of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty”, Wisconsin Law Review Cilt: 1993, Sayı: 2, 1993, s. 301-394.
74. Kunz, Josef L.: “The Nature of Customary International Law”, American Journal of International Law, Cilt: 47, Sayı: 4, 1953, s. 662-669.
75. Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, 1996 I.C.J. Rep. 255, para. 73 (8 Temmuz 1996).
76. Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Declaration of Judge Ferrari Bravo, 1996 I.C.J. Rep. (8 Temmuz 1996). Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Dissenting Opinion of Vice-President Schwebel, 1996 I.C.J. Rep. (8 Temmuz 1996).
77. Lepard, Brian D.: “Introduction”, içinde Reexamining Customary International Law, Editör Brian D. Lepard, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2017, s. 1-44.
78. Lepard, Brian D: Customary International Law: A New Theory with Practical Applications, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2010.
79. Loschin, Lynn: “The Persistent Objector and Customary Human Rights Law: A Proposed Analytical Framework”, U.C. Davis Journal of International Law and Policy, Cilt: 2, Sayı: 2, 1996, s 147-172.
80. Martin, Francisco Forrest: The Constitution as Treaty: The International Legal Constructionalist Approach to the U.S. Constitution, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2007.
81. McClane, J. Brock: “How Late in the Emergence of a Norm of Customary International Law May a Persistent Objector Object”, ILSA Journal of International Law, Cilt: 13, 1989, s. 1-26.
82. McDade, Patrick A.: “The Criminalization of the Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons: Providing a Statutory Regime to Criminalize and Prosecute Nuclear Weapons Proliferators”, Wisconsin International Law Journal, Cilt: 30, Sayı: 1, 2012, s. 112-141.
83. Mendelson, Maurice H.: “The Formation of Customary International Law”, Recueil des cours, Cilt: 272, 1998, s. 155-244.
84. Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America), Merits, Judgment of 27 June, 1986 ICJ Reports.
85. Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, 1986 I.C.J. Rep.
86. Musgrave, Emma: “ALHR offers take on nuclear ban treaty”, Lawyers Weekly (27 Ocak 2021), https://www.lawyersweekly.com.au/politics/30501-alhr-offers-take-on-nuclear-ban-treaty (Erişim Tarihi: 18.11.2024).
87. Nagan, Winston P./Slemmens, Erin K.: “National Security Policy and Ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty”, Houston Journal of International Law, Cilt: 32, Sayı: 1, 2009, s. 1-96.
88. North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany v Netherlands, Federal Republic of Germany v Denmark), Merits, Judgment of 20 February, 1969 ICJ Reports. North Sea Continental Shelf, Judgment of 20 February 1969, I.C.J. Reports 1969.
89. Obligations concerning Negotiations relating to Cessation of the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament (Marshall Islands v. United Kingdom), Dissenting Opinion of Judge Cangado Trindade, I.C.J. Rep. (5 October 2016).
90. Obligations concerning Negotiations relating to Cessation of the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament (Marshall Islands v. United Kingdom), Declaration of Judge Xue, I.C.J. Rep. 2016.
91. Obligations concerning Negotiations relating to Cessation of the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament (Marshall Islands v. United Kingdom), Dissenting opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade, 2016 I.C.J. Rep.
92. Öktem, Emre: Uluslararası Teamül Hukuku, Beta, İstanbul, 2013.
93. P5 Joint Statement on the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (24 Ekim 2018), https://www.gov.uk/government/news/p5-joint-statement-on-the-treaty-on-the-non-proliferation-of-nuclear-weapons, Erişim Tarihi: 18.11.2024.
94. Paust, Jordan J.: “The Complex Nature, Sources and Evidences of Customary Human Rights”, Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, Cilt: 25, Sayı 1, 1996, s. 147-164.
95. Payne, Keith B.: “The Nuclear Posture Review: Setting the Record Straight”, Washington Quarterly, Cilt: 28, Sayı: 3, 2005, s. 135-152.
96. Pazarcı, Hüseyin: Uluslararası Hukuk, 16. Baskı, Turhan, Ankara 2017.
97. Pearce, Jeremy: “Customary International Law - Not Merely Fiction or Myth”, Australian International Law Journal, Cilt: 2003, 2003, s. 125-140.
98. “Putin lowers the threshold for using his nuclear arsenal after Biden’s arms decision for Ukraine”, The Associated Press, 19 Kasım 2024, https://apnews.com/article/russia-nuclear-doctrine-putin-91f20e0c9b0f9e5eaa3ed97c35789898 (Erişim Tarihi: 19.11.2024).
99. Reid, Charles: “Vladimir Putin’s Culture of Terror: What Is to Be Done?”, University of St. Thomas Journal of Law and Public Policy, Cilt: 9, Sayı: 2, 2015, s. 275-376.
100. Report of the International Law Commission, General Assembly Official Records, Seventy-third Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/73/10), 2018, https://legal.un.org/ilc/reports/2018/english/a_73_10_advance.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 01.01.2024).
101. Reports of International Arbitral Awards, Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission, Partial Award: Prisoners of War, Ethiopia’s Claim 4, Decision of 1 July 2003, Volume XXVI, https://legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXVI/73-114.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 25.11.2024).
102. Restatement of the Law, Third, Foreign Relations Law of the United States, American Law Institute, 1987.
103. Roberts, Anthea Elizabeth: “Traditional and Modern Approaches to Customary International Law: A Reconciliation”, American Journal of International Law, Cilt: 95, Sayı: 4, 2001, s. 757-791.
104. “Russia says new US base in Poland raises overall nuclear danger”, Reuters, 21 Kasım 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia-says-new-us-base-poland-raises-overall-nuclear-danger-2024-11-21/ (Erişim Tarihi: 22.11.2024).
105. Scharf, Michael P.: “Accelerated Formation of Customary International Law”, ILSA Journal of International & Comparative Law, Cilt: 20, Sayı: 2, 2014, s. 305-341.
106. Scharf, Michael P.: “Seizing the Grotian Moment: Accelerated Formation of Customary International Law in Times of Fundamental Change”, Cornell International Law Journal, Cilt: 43, Sayı: 3, 2010, s. 439-470.
107. Security Council Resolution 1695, UN Doc. S/RES/1695, 2006, https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/578923?v=pdf#files (Erişim Tarihi: 18.10.2024).
108. Slatter, Claire: “Securing the Pacific in a Globalised World: New and Emerging Developments in International Law”, Canterbury Law Review, Cilt: 27, Sayo Special Issue, 2020, s. 5-20.
109. Statute of the International Court of Justice, 26 June 1945, 59 Stat. 1055, 33 UNTS 93.
110. Stein, Ted L.: “The Approach of the Different Drummer: The Principle of the Persistent Objector in International Law,” Harvard International Law Journal, Cilt: 26, Sayı: 2, 1985, s. 457-482.
111. Stein, Ted L.: “The Approach of the Different Drummer: The Principle of the Persistent Objector in International Law”, Harvard International Law Journal, Cilt: 26, Sayı: 2, 1985, s. 457-482.
112. Steinfeld, Adam: “Nuclear Objections: The Persistent Objector and the Legality of the Use of Nuclear Weapons”, Brooklyn Law Review, Cilt: 62, Sayı: 4, 1996, s. 1635-1686.
113. Taki, Hiroshi: “Opinio Juris and the Formation of Customary International Law: A Theoretical Analysis”, German Yearbook of International Law, Cilt: 51, 2008, s 447-466.
114. Tertrais, Bruno: “Will Europe Get Its Own Bomb?”, Washington Quarterly, Cilt: 42, Sayı: 2, 2019, s. 47-66.
115. The Case of the S.S. Lotus (France v Turkey), PCIJ Rep Series A No 10.
116. The United Nations Disarmament Yearbook, Volume 40 (Part II): 2015, Office for Disarmament Affairs New York 2016.
117. Thirlway, Hugh: The Sources of International Law, 2. Baskı, Oxford University Press, New York 2019.
118. Trachtman, Joel P.: “Persistent Objectors, Cooperation, and the Utility of Customary International Law”, Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law, Cilt: 21, Sayı: 1, 2010, s. 221-233.
119. Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, July 1, 1968, 729 U.N.T.S. 161.
120. Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, United Nations General Assembly, 7 July 2017, A/CONF.229/2017/8.
121. Tütüncü, Ayşe Nur: “Nükleer Silâhlar ve Milletlerarası İnsancıl Hukuk İlişkisinin Divan’ın 1996 Tarihli Danışma Görüşü Çerçevesinde Değerlendirilmesi”, Milletlerarası Hukuk ve Milletlerarası Özel Hukuk Bülteni, Cilt: 23, Sayı: 1-2, 2003, s. 791-816.
122. United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs Treaties Database, Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, https://treaties.unoda.org/t/npt/participants (Erişim Tarihi: 10.08.2024).
123. United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs Treaties Database, Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, https://treaties.unoda.org/t/tpnw/participants (Erişim Tarihi: 08.08.2024).
124. Walden, Raphael M.: “The Subjective Element in the Formation of Customary International Law”, Israel Law Review, Cilt: 12, Sayı: 3, 1977, s. 344-364.
125. Weil, Prosper: “Towards Relative Normativity in International Law”, American Journal of International Law, Cilt: 77, Sayı: 3, 1983, s. 413-442.
126. Worster, William Thomas: “The Inductive and Deductive Methods in Customary International Law Analysis: Traditional and Modern Approaches”, Georgetown Journal of International Law, Cilt: 45, Sayı: 2, 2014, s. 445-522.