Araştırma Makalesi
BibTex RIS Kaynak Göster

PARAMILITARISATION OF THE POLICE AND POLICING: EFFECTS OF POLICE VIOLENCE ON 2021 PROTESTS IN COLOMBIA

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 24 Sayı: 3 , 1065 - 1094 , 30.09.2022

Onur Ağkaya

https://doi.org/10.16953/deusosbil.1097565
https://izlik.org/JA32YP35AT

Öz

In April 2021, the health system reform and tax regulation announced in Colombia to alleviate the effects of the Covid-19 epidemic caused thousands of people to take to the streets. In the face of the protests, the government deployed the police and the national army units to maintain public order. However, the problem of targeting civilians by the security forces re-emerged during the protests and caused the demonstrations to grow to a larger scale. This study analyzes the emergence, increasing continuation and causes of the ongoing protest actions in Colombia. Accordingly, the study argues that the chronic extreme violence the security forces perpetrated in Colombia, primarily targeting civilians, triggered the emergence of these protests and caused more activists to join the government. The study discusses the consequences of the paramilitarisation of Colombian police for the protests and society. To this end, in this study, an analysis of the possible course of the ongoing protests and violent acts is presented, which will be placed in the historical context of the 2021 protests, based on the news in the Colombian media and the observations of international organizations. The study contributes to understanding the culture of social movements prevalent in Latin America, the current Colombian politics, and the literature on political violence.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Colombia Social Movements Political Violence Paramilitary Policing Police Reform.

Kaynakça

  • Adam-Troian, J., Çelebi, E. & Mahfud, Y. (2020). “Return of the repressed”: Exposure to police violence increases protest and self-sacrifice intentions for the Yellow Vests. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 23 (8), 1171-1186. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220920707.
  • Amnesty International (2020a). Colombia: Why do they want to kill us?: Lack of safe space to defend human rights in Colombia. https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/amr23/3009/2020/en/, (Erişim Tarihi: 04.11.2021).
  • Amnesty International (2020b). Colombia: Amnesty International condemns torture and excessive use of force by police. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/09/colombia-amnistia-condena-tortura-uso-excesivo-fuerza/, (Erişim Tarihi: 05.11.2021).
  • Amnesty International (2021a). Colombia: Amnesty International denounces militarized response and police repression of demonstrations. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/05/colombia-amnistia-denuncia-respuesta-militarizada-represion-policial/, (Erişim Tarihi: 07.11.2021).
  • Amnesty International (2021b). Colombia: Shoots on sight: eye trauma in the context of the National Strike. https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/amr23/5005/2021/en/, (Erişim Tarihi: 07.11.2021).
  • Amnesty International (2022). Repression in the Spotlight. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2022/02/repression-in-the-spotlight/, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.03.2022).
  • Anisin, A. (2016). Violence begets violence: Why states should not lethally repress popular protest. The International Journal of Human Rights, 20 (7), 893-913. DOI: 10.1080/13642987.2016.1192536.
  • Balko, R. (2013). Rise of the Warrior Cop: The Militarization of America’s Police Forces. New York: Public Affairs.
  • Bayerl, P. S., Karlović, R., Akhgar, B. & Markarian, G. (2017). Community Policing – A European Perspective: Strategies, Best Practices and Guidelines. Cham: Springer.
  • BBC (2019). Paro en Colombia: Dilan Cruz, el joven que murió por un disparo de la policía durante las protestas en Colombia. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-50548793, (Erişim Tarihi: 12.11.2021).
  • BBC (2020). El inédito fallo de la Corte Suprema en Colombia que le ordena al gobierno garantizar la protesta pacífica y pedir perdón por excesos de la policía. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-54268218, (Erişim Tarihi: 14.11.2021).
  • BBC (2021a). Paro nacional en Colombia: miles de personas marchan en protesta por la reforma tributaria en medio de un grave repunte de casos de coronavirus. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-56897151, (Erişim Tarihi: 15.11.2021).
  • BBC (2021b). Protestas en Colombia: qué es el Esmad, el cuestionado escuadrón antidisturbios señalado por las muertes de manifestantes en ese país. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-56910574, (Erişim Tarihi: 13.11.2021).
  • BBC (2021c). Protestas en Colombia: por qué el choque entre manifestantes y policías es tan profundo (y cómo los CAI se convirtieron en un símbolo de lucha). https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-57016978, (Erişim Tarihi: 14.11.2021).
  • BBC (2021d). El duro informe de la CIDH sobre las protestas en Colombia que Iván Duque rechaza. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-57758530, (Erişim Tarihi: 09.11.2021).
  • Bieler, S. (2016). Police militarization in the USA: The state of the field. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 39, 586–600.
  • BM İnsan Hakları Yüksek Komiserliği (2021). El Paro Nacional 2021: Lecciones aprendidas para el ejercicio del derecho de reunión pacífica en Colombia. https://www.hchr.org.co/documentoseinformes/documentos/Colombia_Documento-lecciones-aprendidas-y-observaciones-Paro-Nacional-2021.pdf, (Erişim Tarihi: 04.03.2022).
  • Bonner, M. D. (2019): What democratic policing is ... and is not. Policing and Society, 30 (9), 1044-1060. DOI: 10.1080/10439463.2019.1649405
  • Bonner, M. D. & Dammert, L. (2021). Constructing police legitimacy during protests: frames and consequences for human rights. Policing and Society. DOI: 10.1080/10439463.2021.1957887.
  • Bonner, M. D., Seri G., Kubal, M. T. & Kempa, M. (2018). Introduction: Police Abuse in Contemporary Democracies. M. D. Bonner, et. al. (Der.), Police Abuse in Contemporary Democracies içinde (ss. 1-27). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Borda, S. (2020). Parar para Avanzar: Crónica del movimiento estudiantil que paralizó a Colombia. Bogotá: Planeta.
  • Bosworth, M. (2008). Border Control and the Limits of the Sovereign State. Social and Legal Studies, 17 (2), 199-215.
  • Brogden, M. & Nijhar, P. (2005). Community Policing: National and International Models and Approaches. Londra: Willan Publishing.
  • Camacho Leyva, B. (1993). Etapa contemporánea 1974-1990. C. C. Schrader (Der.), Historia de las Fuerzas Militares de Colombia: Policía içinde (ss. 257-284). Bogotá: Planeta.
  • Caracol (2019). Mueren dos jóvenes en lo que habría sido un violento intento por ingresar a centro comercial. https://noticias.caracoltv.com/valle/mueren-dos-jovenes-en-lo-que-habria-sido-un-violento-intento-por-ingresar-a-centro-comercial, (Erişim Tarihi: 31.03.2022).
  • Caracol (2021). HRW denuncia un “patrón de dispersión arbitraria en las manifestaciones”. https://caracol.com.co/radio/2021/06/09/nacional/1623215872_637462.html, (Erişim Tarihi: 09.11.2021).
  • Cárdenas, F. A. L. (1993). El Primer Siglo de la República. C. C. Schrader (Der.), Historia de las Fuerzas Militares de Colombia: Policía içinde (ss. 97-144). Bogotá: Planeta.
  • Carey, S. C. (2010). The Use of Repression as a Response to Domestic Dissent. Political Studies, 58 (1), 167–86.
  • Carreras, M. & Pion-Berlin, D. (2017). Armed Forces, Police and Crime-fighting in Latin America. Journal of Politics in Latin America, 9 (3), 3-26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1866802X1700900301.
  • Casas Ramírez, D. A. (2019). Esmad, seguridad y posacuerdo: perspectivas sobre la protesta en Colombia. Ciencias Sociales y Educación, 8 (16), 73-89. https://doi.org/10.22395/csye.v8n16a5.
  • Casey, J. & Pike, D. (2009). Fit for Purpose: Working with the Community to Strengthen Policing in Victoria, Australia. D. Wisler & I. Onwudiwe (Der.), Community Policing: International Patterns and Comparative Perspectives içinde (ss.189-214). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
  • Cecilia García, M. C. (2001). Luchas y Movimientos Cívicos en Colombia Durante Los Ochenta y Los Noventa, Transformaciones y Permemencias. M. Archila & M. Pardo (Der.), Movimientos Sociales, Estado y Democracia en Colombia içinde (ss. 88-124). Bogotá: Lito Camargo.
  • Cheurprakobkit, S. (2002). Community policing: Training, definitions and policy implications. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 25 (4), 709–725.
  • CNN (2020). Varios muertos en protestas en Bogotá por la muerte de Javier Ordóñez tras ser golpeado por la policía. Esto es lo que sabemos. https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2020/09/10/varios-muertos-en-protestas-en-bogota-por-el-fallecimiento-de-javier-ordonez-tras-ser-golpeado-por-la-policia-esto-es-lo-que-sabemos/, (Erişim Tarihi: 31.03.2022).
  • Cole, B. (2017). ‘One for All and All for One’: Fostering Accountability in CommunityPolicing. P. S. Bayerl (Der.), Community Policing – A European Perspective: Strategies, Best Practices and Guidelines içinde (ss.21-34). Cham: Springer.
  • Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos (CIDH) (2021). Observaciones y recomendaciones: Visita de trabajo a Colombia. https://www.oas.org/es/cidh/informes/pdfs/ObservacionesVisita_cidh_Colombia_spA.pdf, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.11.2021).
  • Cruz, E. (2016). Fuerza Pública, Negociaciones de Paz y Posacuerdo en Colombia. Bogotá, Colombia: Ediciones desde abajo.
  • Dammert, L. (2019). Challenges of Police Reform in Latin America. R. Sieder, K. Ansolabehere & T. Alfonso (Der.), Routledge Handbook of Law and Society in Latin America içinde (ss. 259-277). New York: Routledge.
  • Davenport, C., Johnston, H. & Mueller, C. (2005). Repression and Mobilization. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
  • Davis, D. E. (2008). Who Polices the Police? The Challenges of Accountability in Democratic Mexico. M. Hindon & T. Newborn (Der.), Policing Developing Democracies içinde (ss. 188-213). New York: Routledge.
  • della Porta, D. & Diani, M. (2020). Social Movements: An Introduction, 3. Baskı. Hoboken: Blackwell Publishing.
  • della Porta, D. & Reiter, R. (Der.) (1998). Policing Protest: The Control of Mass Demonstrations in Western democracies. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
  • della Porta, D. & Tarrow, S. (2012). Interactive Diffusion the Coevolution of Police and Protest Behavior with an Application to Transnational Contention. Comparative Political Studies, 45, 119–52. della Porta, D., Peterson A. & Reiter H. (2006). The Policing of Transnational Protest. Aldershot: Ashgate.
  • Dias Felix, A. & Hilgers, T. (2020). Community oriented policing theory and practice: global policy diffusion or local appropriation?. Policing and Society, DOI: 10.1080/10439463.2020.1776280.
  • Dill, B. & Aminzade, R. (2017). Historians and the Study of Protest. C. Roggeband & B. Klandermans (Der.), Handbook of Social Movements Accross Disciplines içinde (ss. 141-183). Amsterdam: Springer.
  • DW (Deutsche Welle) (2021). Colombia: suspenden diálogo entre el Comité del Paro y el Gobierno. https://www.dw.com/es/colombia-suspenden-diálogo-entre-el-comité-del-paro-y-el-gobierno/a-57797274, (Erişim Tarihi: 04.03.2022).
  • Earl, J. (2011). Political Repression: Iron Fists, Velvet Gloves, and Diffuse Control. Annual Review of Sociology, 37, 261–84.
  • Echeverri Ossa, B. (1993). Nueva Era de la Policía Nacional. C. C. Schrader (Der.), Historia de las Fuerzas Militares de Colombia: Policía içinde (ss. 207-238). Bogotá: Planeta.
  • Eck, K., Conrad C. R. & Crabtree, C. (2021). Policing and Political Violence. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 65 (10), 1-16. DOI: 10.1177/00220027211013083.
  • El Colombiano (2020). Sin acuerdos finalizó primera reunión de 2020 entre Comité del Paro y Gobierno. https://www.elcolombiano.com/colombia/sin-acuerdos-finalizo-primera-reunion-entre-comite-del-paro-y-gobierno-DC12455152, (Erişim Tarihi: 06.03.2022).
  • El Comercio (2021). La Unión Europea condena el “uso desproporcionado de la fuerza” en las protestas en Colombia. https://elcomercio.pe/mundo/europa/colombia-la-union-europea-condena-el-uso-desproporcionado-de-la-fuerza-en-las-manifestaciones-contra-la-reforma-tributaria-de-ivan-duque-noticia/, (Erişim Tarihi: 05.03.2022).
  • El Espectador (2021). Comisión Primera de la Camara hunde proyecto de reforma a la policía de la oposición. https://www.elespectador.com/politica/comision-primera-de-la-camara-hunde-proyecto-de-reforma-a-la-policia-de-la-oposicion/, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • El País (2019a). Las protestas se intensifican en Colombia y Duque saca el Ejército a las calles. https://elpais.com/internacional/2019/11/22/america/1574461911_239534.html, (Erişim Tarihi: 02.03.2022)
  • El País (2019b). Dilan Cruz, símbolo de las protestas en Colombia. https://elpais.com/internacional/2019/11/25/colombia/1574638930_591290.html, (Erişim Tarihi: 31.03.2022).
  • El Tiempo (2019). ¿Quién era el joven que falleció porque se le explotó una papa bomba? https://www.eltiempo.com/colombia/medellin/julian-andres-orrego-joven-que-murio-por-para-bomba-cerca-de-universidad-de-antioquia-439824, (Erişim Tarihi: 31.03.2022).
  • El Tiempo (2021a). La visita de la CIDH a Colombia será el 8 de junio. https://www.eltiempo.com/politica/gobierno/cidh-llegaria-a-colombia-el-8-de-junio-592525, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • El Tiempo (2021b). Vicepresidenta afirma que campaña en redes detonó las protestas en Colombia. https://www.eltiempo.com/politica/gobierno/marta-lucia-ramirez-acusa-a-las- redes-sociales-de-detonar-protestas-617075, (Erişim Tarihi: 09.03.2022).
  • Fernandez, L. A. (2008). Policing Dissent: Social Control and the Anti-Globalization Movement. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
  • Ferree, M. M. (2005). Soft Repression: Ridicule, Stigma, and Silencing. C. Davenport, H. Johnston & C. Mueller (Der.), Repression and Mobilization içinde (ss. 138-155). Londra: University of Minnesota Press.
  • Flores-Macias, G. & Zarkin, J. (2019). The Militarization of Law Enforcement: Evidence from Latin America. Perspectives on Politics, 19 (2), 519–538. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592719003906.
  • Frühling, H. (2009). Recent Police Reform in Latin America. N. Uildriks (Der.), Policing Insecurity: Police Reform, Security, and Human Rights in Latin America içinde (ss. 21-46). Lanham: Lexington Books.
  • Frühling, H. (2012). A Realistic Look at Latin American Community Policing Programmes. Policing and Society: An International Journal of Research and Policy, 22 (1), 76-88. DOI: 10.1080/10439463.2011.636816.
  • Garland, D. (1996). The Limits of the Sovereign State: Strategies of Crime Control in Contemporary Society. The British Journal of Criminology, 36 (4), 445-471.
  • Geary, R., (1985). Policing Industrial Disputes: 1893 to 1985. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Gómez Polo, G. (2021). Una a Una: Las Reformas a la Policía que se Proponen desde el Congreso. El Espectador. https://www.elespectador.com/politica/las-reformas-a-la-policia-que-se-proponen-en-el-congreso/, (Erişim Tarihi: 09.03.2022).
  • Guzmán, S. B. (2012). La internacionalización de la paz y de la guerra en Colombia durante los Gobiernos de Andrés Pastrana y Álvaro Uribe: Búsqueda de legitimidad política y capacidad militar. Bogotá: Ediciones Uniandes.
  • Hérnandez, M. (2020). Colombia’s ESMAD and the History of U.S. Policing. Alliance for Global Justice. https://afgj.org/colombias-esmad-and-the-history-of-u-s-policing, (Erişim Tarihi: 31.03.2022).
  • Holgersson, S. & Knutsson J. (2011). Dialogue Policing: A Means for less Crowd Violence? T. Madensen & J. Knutsson (Der.), Preventing Crowd Violence içinde (ss. 191-215). London: Lynne Rienner.
  • Human Rights Watch (HRW) (2020). Colombia: Abuses Amid Massive Demonstrations. https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/03/10/colombia-abuses-amid-massive-demonstrations, (Erişim Tarihi: 04.11.2021).
  • Human Rights Watch (HRW): (2021a). Colombia: Events of 2020, erişim adresi: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2021/country-chapters/colombia, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • Human Rights Watch (HRW) (2021b). Colombia: Egregious Police Abuses Against Protesters. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/06/09/colombia-egregious-police-abuses-against-protesters, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • Info Defensa (2020). La Policía Colombiana incorpora cinco nuevos vehículos Kronos. https://www.infodefensa.com/texto-diario/mostrar/3127784/policia-colombiana-incorpora-cinco-nuevos-vehiculos-kronos, (Erişim Tarihi: 22.03.2022).
  • Kaldor, M. (2012). New and Old Wars, 3. Baskı. Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Kappler, V. E. & Gaines, L. K. (2011). Community Policing: A Contemporary Perspective. 6. Baskı. Waltham: Anderson Publishing.
  • Kennison, P. & Loumansky, A. (2007). Shoot to Kill–Understanding Police Use of Force in Combatting Suicide Terrorism. Crime, Law and Social Change, 47, 151–68.
  • Koonings, K (2012). New Violence, Insecurity, and the State: Comparative Reflections on Latin America and Mexico. W. G. Pansters (Der.), Violence, Coercion, and State-Making in Twentieth-Century Mexico: The Other Half of the Centaur içinde (ss.187-202). Stanford: Stanford University Press.
  • Koslicki, W. M. & Willits, D. (2018). The iron fist in the velvet glove? Testing the militarisation/community policing paradox. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 20 (2), 143–154. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461355718774581.
  • Kraska P. B. & Paulsen D. J. (1997). Grounded research into U.S. paramilitary policing: forging the iron fist inside the velvet glove. Policing & Society, 7, 253–270.
  • Kraska, P. B. (2007). Militarization and Policing—Its Relevance to 21st Century Police. Policing, 1 (4), 501–513. doi:10.1093/police/pam065.
  • Kraska, P. B. & Kappeler, V. E. (1997). Militarizing American Police: The Rise and Normalization of Paramilitary Units. Social Problems, 44 (1), 1-18.
  • La Policía Nacional de Colombia. Funciones de los Escuadrones Móviles Antidisturbios de la Policía Nacional. https://www.policia.gov.co/especializados/antidisturbios/funciones, (Erişim Tarihi: 07.03.2022).
  • La Policía Nacional de Colombia (2022). Evolución Histórica. https://www.policia.gov.co/historia, (Erişim Tarihi: 24.02.2022).
  • Lawson, E. (2018). TRENDS: Police Militarization and the Use of Lethal Force. Political Research Quarterly. 72 (1), 177-189. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912918784209.
  • Lemos, G. (2021). ONU Derechos Humanos en Colombia denuncia amenazas y ataques en Cali. CNN. https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2021/05/04/onu-colombia-denuncia-amenazas-ataques-cali-orix/, (Erişim Tarihi: 09.11.2021).
  • Lindsay-Poland, J. (2018). Plan Colombia: U.S. Ally Atrocities and Community Activism. Durham: Duke University Press.
  • López-Pedreros, R. (2019). Makers of Democracy: A Transnational History of the Middle Classes in Colombia. Durham: Duke University Press.
  • Malone, M. F. T. & Dammert, L. (2020). The police and the public: policing practices and public trust in Latin America, Policing and Society, 31 (4), 418-433. DOI: 10.1080/10439463.2020.1744600.
  • Mansley, D. R. (2014). Collective Violence, Democracy and Protest Policing. New York: Routledge.
  • Miranda, B. (2019). María del Pilar Hurtado: el asesinato de una mujer frente a sus hijos que indigna a Colombia. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-48732381, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.03.2022).
  • Murray, J. (2006). Policing Terrorism: A Threat to Community Policing or Just a Shift in Priorities?. Police Practice and Research, 6 (4), 347-361. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614260500293986
  • Müller, M. (2012). Public Security in the Negotiated State: Policing in Latin America and Beyond. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Myers-Montgomery, J. (2016). Militarized Police and Unpermitted Protest: Implementing Policy That Civilizes the Police. Cultural Studies: Critical Methodologies, 16 (3), 278-286. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532708616634774.
  • Noriega, C. (2020). Colombians Take on Their Militarized Police. The Nation. https://www.thenation.com/article/world/police-colombia-acab/, (Erişim Tarihi: 09.11.2021).
  • Ortiz, I., Burke. S., Berrada, M. & Cortés, H. S. (2022). World Protests: A Study of Key Protest Issues in the 21st Century. Palgrave Macmillan [eBook]. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88513-7.
  • Pardo, D. (2020). Policía en Colombia: por qué es militar y no civil (y qué tiene que ver con las demandas de las recientes protestas). https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-54112641, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • Passavant, P. (2021). Policing Protest: The Post-Democratic State and the Figure of Black Insurrection. Durham: Duke University Press.
  • Perry, G., Jonathan-Zamir, T. & Weisburd, D. (2017). The Effect of Paramilitary Protest Policing on Protestors’ Trust in the Police: The Case of the “Occupy Israel” Movement. Law & Society Review, 51 (3), 602-634. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12279.
  • Petras, J. F. & Veltmeyer, H. (2019). Neoliberalism and Social Movements in Latin America: Mobilizing the Resistance. B. Berberoğlu (Der.), The Palgrave Handbook of Social Movements, Revolution, and Social Transformation içinde (ss. 177-211). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Prado, M. M., Trebilcock, M. & Hartford, P. (2012). Police Reform in Violent Democracies in Latin America. Hague Journal on the Rule of Law, 4, 252-285. doi:10.1017/S1876404512000164.
  • Pulzo (2021). HRW condena uso del arma pesada del Esmad: “Es algo que no hemos visto nunca en América”. https://www.pulzo.com/nacion/paro-nacional-hrw-condena-uso-arma-venom-esmad-PP1049829, (Erişim Tarihi: 17.03.2022).
  • Raadschelders, J. C. N. & Vigoda-Gadot, E. (2015). Global Dimensions of Public Administration and Governance: A Comparative Voyage. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
  • Ramírez, E. P. & Cobos, E. G. (2018). Political Representation and Social Movements in Colombia (2002-2016). A. Albala (Der.), Civil Society and Political Representation in Latin America (2010-2015): Towards a Divorce Between Social Movements and Political Parties? içinde (ss. 73-94). Cham: Springer.
  • RCN Radio (2021). Expresidente César Gaviria pide reformar la Policía Nacional. https://www.rcnradio.com/politica/expresidente-cesar-gaviria-pide-reformar-la-policia-nacional, (Erişim Tarihi: 31.03.2022).
  • Reuters (2021). Colombia denuncia infiltración de protestas por grupos violentos, sigue incertidumbre sobre cifra de muertos. https://www.reuters.com/article/colombia-protestas-idLTAKBN2CK1M5, (Erişim Tarihi: 19.03.2022).
  • Reynolds-Stenson, H. (2017). Protesting the police: Police brutality claims as a predictor of police repression of protest. Social Movement Studies, 17(1), 48-63. https://doi.org/10.108 0/14742837.2017.1381592.
  • Seigel, M. (2018). Violence Work: Policing and Power. Race & Class. 59 (4), 15-33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396817752617.
  • Semana (2021a). El drama que dejó bombardeo militar en Guaviare por muerte de menores. https://www.semana.com/nacion/articulo/el-drama-de-un-bombardeo/202154/, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • Semana (2021b). Comité Nacional del Paro: ¿quiénes son los organizadores del paro nacional? https://www.semana.com/nacion/articulo/comite-nacional-del-paro-quienes-son-los-organizadores-del-paro-nacional/202104/, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • Semana (2022). El caso de Alison en Popayán: se suicidó tras presunto abuso sexual del Esmad. https://www.semana.com/semana-tv/vicky-en-semana/articulo/el-caso-de-alison-en-popayan-se-suicido-tras-presunto-abuso-sexual-del-esmad/202126/, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • Simckes, M., Hajat, A., Revere D., Rowhani-Rahbar, A. & Willits, D. (2019). A Conceptualization of Militarization in Domestic Policing. Police Quarterly, 2019, 22 (4), 511-538. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611119862070.
  • Soifer, H.D. 2015. State Building in Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Temblores (2019). Silencio Oficial: Un aturdido grito de justicia por los 20 anos del ESMAD. https://en.temblores.org/silencio-oficial, (Erişim Tarihi: 29.03.2022).
  • Tilly, C. (1978). From mobilization to revolution. Addison-Wesley.
  • Torrado, S. (2021). Un año fatídico para las fuerzas de seguridad de Colombia. El País. https://elpais.com/internacional/2021-12-30/un-ano-fatidico-para-las-fuerzas-de-seguridad-de-colombia.html, (Erişim Tarihi: 27.02.2022).
  • Uildriks, N. (2009). Police Reform, Security, and Human Rights in Latin America: An Introduction. N. Uildriks (Der.), Policing Insecurity: Police Reform, Security, and Human Rights in Latin America içinde (ss. 1-20). New York: Lexington Books.
  • Ungar, M. & Arias, E. D. (2012). Reassessing community-oriented policing in Latin America. Policing and Society: An International Journal of Research and Policy, 22 (1), 1-13. DOI: 10.1080/10439463.2011.597856.
  • Vitale, A. S. (2007). The Command and Control and Miami Models at the 2004 Republican National Convention: New Forms of Policing Protests. Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 12 (4), 403-415.
  • Wacquant, L. (2001). The Penalisation of Poverty and the Rise of Neoliberalism. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, Special issue on Criminal Justice and Social Policy, 9 (4), 401–412.
  • Wacquant, L. (2008). The Militarization of Urban Marginality: Lessons from the Brazilian Metropolis. International Political Sociology, 2, 56–74.
  • Wacquant, L. (2009). Punishing the Poor: The New Government of Social Insecurity. Durham: Duke University Press.
  • Walby, S. (2009). Globalization and Inequalities: Complexity and Contested Modernities. London: Sage Publications.
  • Weiss, T. (2011). The blurring border between the police and the military: A debate without foundations. Cooperation and Conflict, 46 (3), 396-405. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836711416961
  • White, C. (2017). An ‘absolute right to do anything’: Protest policing in NSW's last decade of a full-time riot squad. Alternative Law Journal. 42 (2), 112-117. https://doi.org/10.1177/1037969X17710628.
  • WOLA (2011). Labor Action Plan: Just Paper or Real Changes? https://www.wola.org/analysis/labor-action-plan-just-paper-or-real-changes/, (Erişim Tarihi: 22.01.2022).
  • WOLA (2012). Striking Afro-Colombian Port Workers Attacked By Anti-Riot Police. https://www.wola.org/analysis/striking-afro-colombian-port-workers-attacked-by-anti-riot-police/, (Erişim Tarihi: 22.01.2022).
  • WOLA (2016). U.S. Civil Society Expresses Outrage by Response to Peaceful Protest in Colombia. https://www.wola.org/analysis/us-civil-society-expresses-outrage-by-response-to-peaceful-protest-in-colombia/, (Erişim Tarihi: 22.01.2022).
  • WOLA (2017). May Update: Violence Against Defenders Continues. https://www.wola.org/analysis/may-update-violence-defenders-continues/, (Erişim Tarihi: 22.01.2022).
  • WOOD, L. J. (2014). Crisis and Control: Militarization of Protest Policing. Toronto: Pluto Press and Between the Lines.

POLİS TEŞKİLATI VE ROLÜNÜN PARAMİLİTARİZASYONU: KOLOMBİYA’DA POLİS ŞİDDETİNİN 2021 PROTESTOLARINA ETKİLERİ

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 24 Sayı: 3 , 1065 - 1094 , 30.09.2022

Onur Ağkaya

https://doi.org/10.16953/deusosbil.1097565
https://izlik.org/JA32YP35AT

Öz

Nisan 2021’de, Kolombiya’da, Covid-19 salgınının etkilerini hafifletmek amacıyla açıklanan sağlık sistemi reformu ve vergi düzenlemesi binlerce kişinin protestolara başlamasına neden olmuştur. Protestolar karşısında, hükümet, önce polis daha sonra ulusal ordu birliklerini kamusal düzeni sağlamak üzere görevlendirmiştir. Ancak, sivil vatandaşların güvenlik güçleri tarafından hedef alınması sorunu protestolar sırasında da gözlemlenmiş ve gösterilerin daha da büyümesine neden olmuştur. Bu bağlamda, bu çalışma, Kolombiya’da süregiden protesto eylemlerinin ortaya çıkışını, artarak devam etmesini ve bunların nedenlerini incelemektedir. Buna göre, çalışmada, Kolombiya’da güvenlik güçlerinin, en başta sivilleri hedef alan kronikleşmiş aşırı şiddet eylemlerinin, hem söz konusu protestoların ortaya çıkmasını tetiklediğini hem de daha çok eylemcinin hükümet karşıtı protestolara katılmalarına neden olduğunu savunulmaktadır. Çalışmada, Kolombiya’da polis teşkilatının paramiliterleşmesinin protestolar ve toplum nezdindeki sonuçları tartışılmaktadır. 2021 Protestoları, bu çalışmada, Kolombiya medyasında yer alan haberlere ve uluslararası örgütlerin gözlemlerine dayanan kaynaklar üzerinden tarihsel bağlamına konumlandırılmakta ve devam eden protesto ve şiddet eylemlerinin muhtemel seyrine dair bir analiz ortaya konulmaktadır. Bu şekilde, Latin Amerika’da yaygın olan toplumsal hareketler kültürünün, mevcut Kolombiya siyasetinin anlaşılmasına ve aynı zamanda siyasal şiddet literatürüne bu şekilde katkı sunulmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Kolombiya Toplumsal Hareketler Siyasal Şiddet Paramiliter Polislik Polis Reformu

Kaynakça

  • Adam-Troian, J., Çelebi, E. & Mahfud, Y. (2020). “Return of the repressed”: Exposure to police violence increases protest and self-sacrifice intentions for the Yellow Vests. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 23 (8), 1171-1186. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220920707.
  • Amnesty International (2020a). Colombia: Why do they want to kill us?: Lack of safe space to defend human rights in Colombia. https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/amr23/3009/2020/en/, (Erişim Tarihi: 04.11.2021).
  • Amnesty International (2020b). Colombia: Amnesty International condemns torture and excessive use of force by police. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/09/colombia-amnistia-condena-tortura-uso-excesivo-fuerza/, (Erişim Tarihi: 05.11.2021).
  • Amnesty International (2021a). Colombia: Amnesty International denounces militarized response and police repression of demonstrations. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/05/colombia-amnistia-denuncia-respuesta-militarizada-represion-policial/, (Erişim Tarihi: 07.11.2021).
  • Amnesty International (2021b). Colombia: Shoots on sight: eye trauma in the context of the National Strike. https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/amr23/5005/2021/en/, (Erişim Tarihi: 07.11.2021).
  • Amnesty International (2022). Repression in the Spotlight. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2022/02/repression-in-the-spotlight/, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.03.2022).
  • Anisin, A. (2016). Violence begets violence: Why states should not lethally repress popular protest. The International Journal of Human Rights, 20 (7), 893-913. DOI: 10.1080/13642987.2016.1192536.
  • Balko, R. (2013). Rise of the Warrior Cop: The Militarization of America’s Police Forces. New York: Public Affairs.
  • Bayerl, P. S., Karlović, R., Akhgar, B. & Markarian, G. (2017). Community Policing – A European Perspective: Strategies, Best Practices and Guidelines. Cham: Springer.
  • BBC (2019). Paro en Colombia: Dilan Cruz, el joven que murió por un disparo de la policía durante las protestas en Colombia. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-50548793, (Erişim Tarihi: 12.11.2021).
  • BBC (2020). El inédito fallo de la Corte Suprema en Colombia que le ordena al gobierno garantizar la protesta pacífica y pedir perdón por excesos de la policía. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-54268218, (Erişim Tarihi: 14.11.2021).
  • BBC (2021a). Paro nacional en Colombia: miles de personas marchan en protesta por la reforma tributaria en medio de un grave repunte de casos de coronavirus. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-56897151, (Erişim Tarihi: 15.11.2021).
  • BBC (2021b). Protestas en Colombia: qué es el Esmad, el cuestionado escuadrón antidisturbios señalado por las muertes de manifestantes en ese país. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-56910574, (Erişim Tarihi: 13.11.2021).
  • BBC (2021c). Protestas en Colombia: por qué el choque entre manifestantes y policías es tan profundo (y cómo los CAI se convirtieron en un símbolo de lucha). https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-57016978, (Erişim Tarihi: 14.11.2021).
  • BBC (2021d). El duro informe de la CIDH sobre las protestas en Colombia que Iván Duque rechaza. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-57758530, (Erişim Tarihi: 09.11.2021).
  • Bieler, S. (2016). Police militarization in the USA: The state of the field. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 39, 586–600.
  • BM İnsan Hakları Yüksek Komiserliği (2021). El Paro Nacional 2021: Lecciones aprendidas para el ejercicio del derecho de reunión pacífica en Colombia. https://www.hchr.org.co/documentoseinformes/documentos/Colombia_Documento-lecciones-aprendidas-y-observaciones-Paro-Nacional-2021.pdf, (Erişim Tarihi: 04.03.2022).
  • Bonner, M. D. (2019): What democratic policing is ... and is not. Policing and Society, 30 (9), 1044-1060. DOI: 10.1080/10439463.2019.1649405
  • Bonner, M. D. & Dammert, L. (2021). Constructing police legitimacy during protests: frames and consequences for human rights. Policing and Society. DOI: 10.1080/10439463.2021.1957887.
  • Bonner, M. D., Seri G., Kubal, M. T. & Kempa, M. (2018). Introduction: Police Abuse in Contemporary Democracies. M. D. Bonner, et. al. (Der.), Police Abuse in Contemporary Democracies içinde (ss. 1-27). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Borda, S. (2020). Parar para Avanzar: Crónica del movimiento estudiantil que paralizó a Colombia. Bogotá: Planeta.
  • Bosworth, M. (2008). Border Control and the Limits of the Sovereign State. Social and Legal Studies, 17 (2), 199-215.
  • Brogden, M. & Nijhar, P. (2005). Community Policing: National and International Models and Approaches. Londra: Willan Publishing.
  • Camacho Leyva, B. (1993). Etapa contemporánea 1974-1990. C. C. Schrader (Der.), Historia de las Fuerzas Militares de Colombia: Policía içinde (ss. 257-284). Bogotá: Planeta.
  • Caracol (2019). Mueren dos jóvenes en lo que habría sido un violento intento por ingresar a centro comercial. https://noticias.caracoltv.com/valle/mueren-dos-jovenes-en-lo-que-habria-sido-un-violento-intento-por-ingresar-a-centro-comercial, (Erişim Tarihi: 31.03.2022).
  • Caracol (2021). HRW denuncia un “patrón de dispersión arbitraria en las manifestaciones”. https://caracol.com.co/radio/2021/06/09/nacional/1623215872_637462.html, (Erişim Tarihi: 09.11.2021).
  • Cárdenas, F. A. L. (1993). El Primer Siglo de la República. C. C. Schrader (Der.), Historia de las Fuerzas Militares de Colombia: Policía içinde (ss. 97-144). Bogotá: Planeta.
  • Carey, S. C. (2010). The Use of Repression as a Response to Domestic Dissent. Political Studies, 58 (1), 167–86.
  • Carreras, M. & Pion-Berlin, D. (2017). Armed Forces, Police and Crime-fighting in Latin America. Journal of Politics in Latin America, 9 (3), 3-26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1866802X1700900301.
  • Casas Ramírez, D. A. (2019). Esmad, seguridad y posacuerdo: perspectivas sobre la protesta en Colombia. Ciencias Sociales y Educación, 8 (16), 73-89. https://doi.org/10.22395/csye.v8n16a5.
  • Casey, J. & Pike, D. (2009). Fit for Purpose: Working with the Community to Strengthen Policing in Victoria, Australia. D. Wisler & I. Onwudiwe (Der.), Community Policing: International Patterns and Comparative Perspectives içinde (ss.189-214). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
  • Cecilia García, M. C. (2001). Luchas y Movimientos Cívicos en Colombia Durante Los Ochenta y Los Noventa, Transformaciones y Permemencias. M. Archila & M. Pardo (Der.), Movimientos Sociales, Estado y Democracia en Colombia içinde (ss. 88-124). Bogotá: Lito Camargo.
  • Cheurprakobkit, S. (2002). Community policing: Training, definitions and policy implications. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 25 (4), 709–725.
  • CNN (2020). Varios muertos en protestas en Bogotá por la muerte de Javier Ordóñez tras ser golpeado por la policía. Esto es lo que sabemos. https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2020/09/10/varios-muertos-en-protestas-en-bogota-por-el-fallecimiento-de-javier-ordonez-tras-ser-golpeado-por-la-policia-esto-es-lo-que-sabemos/, (Erişim Tarihi: 31.03.2022).
  • Cole, B. (2017). ‘One for All and All for One’: Fostering Accountability in CommunityPolicing. P. S. Bayerl (Der.), Community Policing – A European Perspective: Strategies, Best Practices and Guidelines içinde (ss.21-34). Cham: Springer.
  • Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos (CIDH) (2021). Observaciones y recomendaciones: Visita de trabajo a Colombia. https://www.oas.org/es/cidh/informes/pdfs/ObservacionesVisita_cidh_Colombia_spA.pdf, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.11.2021).
  • Cruz, E. (2016). Fuerza Pública, Negociaciones de Paz y Posacuerdo en Colombia. Bogotá, Colombia: Ediciones desde abajo.
  • Dammert, L. (2019). Challenges of Police Reform in Latin America. R. Sieder, K. Ansolabehere & T. Alfonso (Der.), Routledge Handbook of Law and Society in Latin America içinde (ss. 259-277). New York: Routledge.
  • Davenport, C., Johnston, H. & Mueller, C. (2005). Repression and Mobilization. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
  • Davis, D. E. (2008). Who Polices the Police? The Challenges of Accountability in Democratic Mexico. M. Hindon & T. Newborn (Der.), Policing Developing Democracies içinde (ss. 188-213). New York: Routledge.
  • della Porta, D. & Diani, M. (2020). Social Movements: An Introduction, 3. Baskı. Hoboken: Blackwell Publishing.
  • della Porta, D. & Reiter, R. (Der.) (1998). Policing Protest: The Control of Mass Demonstrations in Western democracies. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
  • della Porta, D. & Tarrow, S. (2012). Interactive Diffusion the Coevolution of Police and Protest Behavior with an Application to Transnational Contention. Comparative Political Studies, 45, 119–52. della Porta, D., Peterson A. & Reiter H. (2006). The Policing of Transnational Protest. Aldershot: Ashgate.
  • Dias Felix, A. & Hilgers, T. (2020). Community oriented policing theory and practice: global policy diffusion or local appropriation?. Policing and Society, DOI: 10.1080/10439463.2020.1776280.
  • Dill, B. & Aminzade, R. (2017). Historians and the Study of Protest. C. Roggeband & B. Klandermans (Der.), Handbook of Social Movements Accross Disciplines içinde (ss. 141-183). Amsterdam: Springer.
  • DW (Deutsche Welle) (2021). Colombia: suspenden diálogo entre el Comité del Paro y el Gobierno. https://www.dw.com/es/colombia-suspenden-diálogo-entre-el-comité-del-paro-y-el-gobierno/a-57797274, (Erişim Tarihi: 04.03.2022).
  • Earl, J. (2011). Political Repression: Iron Fists, Velvet Gloves, and Diffuse Control. Annual Review of Sociology, 37, 261–84.
  • Echeverri Ossa, B. (1993). Nueva Era de la Policía Nacional. C. C. Schrader (Der.), Historia de las Fuerzas Militares de Colombia: Policía içinde (ss. 207-238). Bogotá: Planeta.
  • Eck, K., Conrad C. R. & Crabtree, C. (2021). Policing and Political Violence. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 65 (10), 1-16. DOI: 10.1177/00220027211013083.
  • El Colombiano (2020). Sin acuerdos finalizó primera reunión de 2020 entre Comité del Paro y Gobierno. https://www.elcolombiano.com/colombia/sin-acuerdos-finalizo-primera-reunion-entre-comite-del-paro-y-gobierno-DC12455152, (Erişim Tarihi: 06.03.2022).
  • El Comercio (2021). La Unión Europea condena el “uso desproporcionado de la fuerza” en las protestas en Colombia. https://elcomercio.pe/mundo/europa/colombia-la-union-europea-condena-el-uso-desproporcionado-de-la-fuerza-en-las-manifestaciones-contra-la-reforma-tributaria-de-ivan-duque-noticia/, (Erişim Tarihi: 05.03.2022).
  • El Espectador (2021). Comisión Primera de la Camara hunde proyecto de reforma a la policía de la oposición. https://www.elespectador.com/politica/comision-primera-de-la-camara-hunde-proyecto-de-reforma-a-la-policia-de-la-oposicion/, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • El País (2019a). Las protestas se intensifican en Colombia y Duque saca el Ejército a las calles. https://elpais.com/internacional/2019/11/22/america/1574461911_239534.html, (Erişim Tarihi: 02.03.2022)
  • El País (2019b). Dilan Cruz, símbolo de las protestas en Colombia. https://elpais.com/internacional/2019/11/25/colombia/1574638930_591290.html, (Erişim Tarihi: 31.03.2022).
  • El Tiempo (2019). ¿Quién era el joven que falleció porque se le explotó una papa bomba? https://www.eltiempo.com/colombia/medellin/julian-andres-orrego-joven-que-murio-por-para-bomba-cerca-de-universidad-de-antioquia-439824, (Erişim Tarihi: 31.03.2022).
  • El Tiempo (2021a). La visita de la CIDH a Colombia será el 8 de junio. https://www.eltiempo.com/politica/gobierno/cidh-llegaria-a-colombia-el-8-de-junio-592525, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • El Tiempo (2021b). Vicepresidenta afirma que campaña en redes detonó las protestas en Colombia. https://www.eltiempo.com/politica/gobierno/marta-lucia-ramirez-acusa-a-las- redes-sociales-de-detonar-protestas-617075, (Erişim Tarihi: 09.03.2022).
  • Fernandez, L. A. (2008). Policing Dissent: Social Control and the Anti-Globalization Movement. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
  • Ferree, M. M. (2005). Soft Repression: Ridicule, Stigma, and Silencing. C. Davenport, H. Johnston & C. Mueller (Der.), Repression and Mobilization içinde (ss. 138-155). Londra: University of Minnesota Press.
  • Flores-Macias, G. & Zarkin, J. (2019). The Militarization of Law Enforcement: Evidence from Latin America. Perspectives on Politics, 19 (2), 519–538. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592719003906.
  • Frühling, H. (2009). Recent Police Reform in Latin America. N. Uildriks (Der.), Policing Insecurity: Police Reform, Security, and Human Rights in Latin America içinde (ss. 21-46). Lanham: Lexington Books.
  • Frühling, H. (2012). A Realistic Look at Latin American Community Policing Programmes. Policing and Society: An International Journal of Research and Policy, 22 (1), 76-88. DOI: 10.1080/10439463.2011.636816.
  • Garland, D. (1996). The Limits of the Sovereign State: Strategies of Crime Control in Contemporary Society. The British Journal of Criminology, 36 (4), 445-471.
  • Geary, R., (1985). Policing Industrial Disputes: 1893 to 1985. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Gómez Polo, G. (2021). Una a Una: Las Reformas a la Policía que se Proponen desde el Congreso. El Espectador. https://www.elespectador.com/politica/las-reformas-a-la-policia-que-se-proponen-en-el-congreso/, (Erişim Tarihi: 09.03.2022).
  • Guzmán, S. B. (2012). La internacionalización de la paz y de la guerra en Colombia durante los Gobiernos de Andrés Pastrana y Álvaro Uribe: Búsqueda de legitimidad política y capacidad militar. Bogotá: Ediciones Uniandes.
  • Hérnandez, M. (2020). Colombia’s ESMAD and the History of U.S. Policing. Alliance for Global Justice. https://afgj.org/colombias-esmad-and-the-history-of-u-s-policing, (Erişim Tarihi: 31.03.2022).
  • Holgersson, S. & Knutsson J. (2011). Dialogue Policing: A Means for less Crowd Violence? T. Madensen & J. Knutsson (Der.), Preventing Crowd Violence içinde (ss. 191-215). London: Lynne Rienner.
  • Human Rights Watch (HRW) (2020). Colombia: Abuses Amid Massive Demonstrations. https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/03/10/colombia-abuses-amid-massive-demonstrations, (Erişim Tarihi: 04.11.2021).
  • Human Rights Watch (HRW): (2021a). Colombia: Events of 2020, erişim adresi: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2021/country-chapters/colombia, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • Human Rights Watch (HRW) (2021b). Colombia: Egregious Police Abuses Against Protesters. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/06/09/colombia-egregious-police-abuses-against-protesters, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • Info Defensa (2020). La Policía Colombiana incorpora cinco nuevos vehículos Kronos. https://www.infodefensa.com/texto-diario/mostrar/3127784/policia-colombiana-incorpora-cinco-nuevos-vehiculos-kronos, (Erişim Tarihi: 22.03.2022).
  • Kaldor, M. (2012). New and Old Wars, 3. Baskı. Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Kappler, V. E. & Gaines, L. K. (2011). Community Policing: A Contemporary Perspective. 6. Baskı. Waltham: Anderson Publishing.
  • Kennison, P. & Loumansky, A. (2007). Shoot to Kill–Understanding Police Use of Force in Combatting Suicide Terrorism. Crime, Law and Social Change, 47, 151–68.
  • Koonings, K (2012). New Violence, Insecurity, and the State: Comparative Reflections on Latin America and Mexico. W. G. Pansters (Der.), Violence, Coercion, and State-Making in Twentieth-Century Mexico: The Other Half of the Centaur içinde (ss.187-202). Stanford: Stanford University Press.
  • Koslicki, W. M. & Willits, D. (2018). The iron fist in the velvet glove? Testing the militarisation/community policing paradox. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 20 (2), 143–154. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461355718774581.
  • Kraska P. B. & Paulsen D. J. (1997). Grounded research into U.S. paramilitary policing: forging the iron fist inside the velvet glove. Policing & Society, 7, 253–270.
  • Kraska, P. B. (2007). Militarization and Policing—Its Relevance to 21st Century Police. Policing, 1 (4), 501–513. doi:10.1093/police/pam065.
  • Kraska, P. B. & Kappeler, V. E. (1997). Militarizing American Police: The Rise and Normalization of Paramilitary Units. Social Problems, 44 (1), 1-18.
  • La Policía Nacional de Colombia. Funciones de los Escuadrones Móviles Antidisturbios de la Policía Nacional. https://www.policia.gov.co/especializados/antidisturbios/funciones, (Erişim Tarihi: 07.03.2022).
  • La Policía Nacional de Colombia (2022). Evolución Histórica. https://www.policia.gov.co/historia, (Erişim Tarihi: 24.02.2022).
  • Lawson, E. (2018). TRENDS: Police Militarization and the Use of Lethal Force. Political Research Quarterly. 72 (1), 177-189. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912918784209.
  • Lemos, G. (2021). ONU Derechos Humanos en Colombia denuncia amenazas y ataques en Cali. CNN. https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2021/05/04/onu-colombia-denuncia-amenazas-ataques-cali-orix/, (Erişim Tarihi: 09.11.2021).
  • Lindsay-Poland, J. (2018). Plan Colombia: U.S. Ally Atrocities and Community Activism. Durham: Duke University Press.
  • López-Pedreros, R. (2019). Makers of Democracy: A Transnational History of the Middle Classes in Colombia. Durham: Duke University Press.
  • Malone, M. F. T. & Dammert, L. (2020). The police and the public: policing practices and public trust in Latin America, Policing and Society, 31 (4), 418-433. DOI: 10.1080/10439463.2020.1744600.
  • Mansley, D. R. (2014). Collective Violence, Democracy and Protest Policing. New York: Routledge.
  • Miranda, B. (2019). María del Pilar Hurtado: el asesinato de una mujer frente a sus hijos que indigna a Colombia. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-48732381, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.03.2022).
  • Murray, J. (2006). Policing Terrorism: A Threat to Community Policing or Just a Shift in Priorities?. Police Practice and Research, 6 (4), 347-361. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614260500293986
  • Müller, M. (2012). Public Security in the Negotiated State: Policing in Latin America and Beyond. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Myers-Montgomery, J. (2016). Militarized Police and Unpermitted Protest: Implementing Policy That Civilizes the Police. Cultural Studies: Critical Methodologies, 16 (3), 278-286. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532708616634774.
  • Noriega, C. (2020). Colombians Take on Their Militarized Police. The Nation. https://www.thenation.com/article/world/police-colombia-acab/, (Erişim Tarihi: 09.11.2021).
  • Ortiz, I., Burke. S., Berrada, M. & Cortés, H. S. (2022). World Protests: A Study of Key Protest Issues in the 21st Century. Palgrave Macmillan [eBook]. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88513-7.
  • Pardo, D. (2020). Policía en Colombia: por qué es militar y no civil (y qué tiene que ver con las demandas de las recientes protestas). https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-54112641, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • Passavant, P. (2021). Policing Protest: The Post-Democratic State and the Figure of Black Insurrection. Durham: Duke University Press.
  • Perry, G., Jonathan-Zamir, T. & Weisburd, D. (2017). The Effect of Paramilitary Protest Policing on Protestors’ Trust in the Police: The Case of the “Occupy Israel” Movement. Law & Society Review, 51 (3), 602-634. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12279.
  • Petras, J. F. & Veltmeyer, H. (2019). Neoliberalism and Social Movements in Latin America: Mobilizing the Resistance. B. Berberoğlu (Der.), The Palgrave Handbook of Social Movements, Revolution, and Social Transformation içinde (ss. 177-211). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Prado, M. M., Trebilcock, M. & Hartford, P. (2012). Police Reform in Violent Democracies in Latin America. Hague Journal on the Rule of Law, 4, 252-285. doi:10.1017/S1876404512000164.
  • Pulzo (2021). HRW condena uso del arma pesada del Esmad: “Es algo que no hemos visto nunca en América”. https://www.pulzo.com/nacion/paro-nacional-hrw-condena-uso-arma-venom-esmad-PP1049829, (Erişim Tarihi: 17.03.2022).
  • Raadschelders, J. C. N. & Vigoda-Gadot, E. (2015). Global Dimensions of Public Administration and Governance: A Comparative Voyage. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
  • Ramírez, E. P. & Cobos, E. G. (2018). Political Representation and Social Movements in Colombia (2002-2016). A. Albala (Der.), Civil Society and Political Representation in Latin America (2010-2015): Towards a Divorce Between Social Movements and Political Parties? içinde (ss. 73-94). Cham: Springer.
  • RCN Radio (2021). Expresidente César Gaviria pide reformar la Policía Nacional. https://www.rcnradio.com/politica/expresidente-cesar-gaviria-pide-reformar-la-policia-nacional, (Erişim Tarihi: 31.03.2022).
  • Reuters (2021). Colombia denuncia infiltración de protestas por grupos violentos, sigue incertidumbre sobre cifra de muertos. https://www.reuters.com/article/colombia-protestas-idLTAKBN2CK1M5, (Erişim Tarihi: 19.03.2022).
  • Reynolds-Stenson, H. (2017). Protesting the police: Police brutality claims as a predictor of police repression of protest. Social Movement Studies, 17(1), 48-63. https://doi.org/10.108 0/14742837.2017.1381592.
  • Seigel, M. (2018). Violence Work: Policing and Power. Race & Class. 59 (4), 15-33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396817752617.
  • Semana (2021a). El drama que dejó bombardeo militar en Guaviare por muerte de menores. https://www.semana.com/nacion/articulo/el-drama-de-un-bombardeo/202154/, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • Semana (2021b). Comité Nacional del Paro: ¿quiénes son los organizadores del paro nacional? https://www.semana.com/nacion/articulo/comite-nacional-del-paro-quienes-son-los-organizadores-del-paro-nacional/202104/, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • Semana (2022). El caso de Alison en Popayán: se suicidó tras presunto abuso sexual del Esmad. https://www.semana.com/semana-tv/vicky-en-semana/articulo/el-caso-de-alison-en-popayan-se-suicido-tras-presunto-abuso-sexual-del-esmad/202126/, (Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2022).
  • Simckes, M., Hajat, A., Revere D., Rowhani-Rahbar, A. & Willits, D. (2019). A Conceptualization of Militarization in Domestic Policing. Police Quarterly, 2019, 22 (4), 511-538. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611119862070.
  • Soifer, H.D. 2015. State Building in Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Temblores (2019). Silencio Oficial: Un aturdido grito de justicia por los 20 anos del ESMAD. https://en.temblores.org/silencio-oficial, (Erişim Tarihi: 29.03.2022).
  • Tilly, C. (1978). From mobilization to revolution. Addison-Wesley.
  • Torrado, S. (2021). Un año fatídico para las fuerzas de seguridad de Colombia. El País. https://elpais.com/internacional/2021-12-30/un-ano-fatidico-para-las-fuerzas-de-seguridad-de-colombia.html, (Erişim Tarihi: 27.02.2022).
  • Uildriks, N. (2009). Police Reform, Security, and Human Rights in Latin America: An Introduction. N. Uildriks (Der.), Policing Insecurity: Police Reform, Security, and Human Rights in Latin America içinde (ss. 1-20). New York: Lexington Books.
  • Ungar, M. & Arias, E. D. (2012). Reassessing community-oriented policing in Latin America. Policing and Society: An International Journal of Research and Policy, 22 (1), 1-13. DOI: 10.1080/10439463.2011.597856.
  • Vitale, A. S. (2007). The Command and Control and Miami Models at the 2004 Republican National Convention: New Forms of Policing Protests. Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 12 (4), 403-415.
  • Wacquant, L. (2001). The Penalisation of Poverty and the Rise of Neoliberalism. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, Special issue on Criminal Justice and Social Policy, 9 (4), 401–412.
  • Wacquant, L. (2008). The Militarization of Urban Marginality: Lessons from the Brazilian Metropolis. International Political Sociology, 2, 56–74.
  • Wacquant, L. (2009). Punishing the Poor: The New Government of Social Insecurity. Durham: Duke University Press.
  • Walby, S. (2009). Globalization and Inequalities: Complexity and Contested Modernities. London: Sage Publications.
  • Weiss, T. (2011). The blurring border between the police and the military: A debate without foundations. Cooperation and Conflict, 46 (3), 396-405. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836711416961
  • White, C. (2017). An ‘absolute right to do anything’: Protest policing in NSW's last decade of a full-time riot squad. Alternative Law Journal. 42 (2), 112-117. https://doi.org/10.1177/1037969X17710628.
  • WOLA (2011). Labor Action Plan: Just Paper or Real Changes? https://www.wola.org/analysis/labor-action-plan-just-paper-or-real-changes/, (Erişim Tarihi: 22.01.2022).
  • WOLA (2012). Striking Afro-Colombian Port Workers Attacked By Anti-Riot Police. https://www.wola.org/analysis/striking-afro-colombian-port-workers-attacked-by-anti-riot-police/, (Erişim Tarihi: 22.01.2022).
  • WOLA (2016). U.S. Civil Society Expresses Outrage by Response to Peaceful Protest in Colombia. https://www.wola.org/analysis/us-civil-society-expresses-outrage-by-response-to-peaceful-protest-in-colombia/, (Erişim Tarihi: 22.01.2022).
  • WOLA (2017). May Update: Violence Against Defenders Continues. https://www.wola.org/analysis/may-update-violence-defenders-continues/, (Erişim Tarihi: 22.01.2022).
  • WOOD, L. J. (2014). Crisis and Control: Militarization of Protest Policing. Toronto: Pluto Press and Between the Lines.
Toplam 128 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

Onur Ağkaya 0000-0003-3044-5978

Gönderilme Tarihi 2 Nisan 2022
Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Eylül 2022
DOI https://doi.org/10.16953/deusosbil.1097565
IZ https://izlik.org/JA32YP35AT
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2022 Cilt: 24 Sayı: 3

Kaynak Göster

APA Ağkaya, O. (2022). POLİS TEŞKİLATI VE ROLÜNÜN PARAMİLİTARİZASYONU: KOLOMBİYA’DA POLİS ŞİDDETİNİN 2021 PROTESTOLARINA ETKİLERİ. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 24(3), 1065-1094. https://doi.org/10.16953/deusosbil.1097565

Cited By

Çatışma ve Barış Tesisi Süreçlerinde Çocukların Devşirilmesi ve Kullanılması Sorunu: Kolombiya Örneği
Alternatif Politika
https://doi.org/10.53376/ap.2023.02

Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi Aile Yılı Özel Sayısı Çağrısı
Sayı Editörü
Prof. Dr. NEBİYE KONUK KANDEMİR

Sevgili Araştırmacılar ve Değerli Yazarlar,
Aile, toplumun temel yapı taşıdır ve bireylerin gelişimi ile sosyal yaşamın şekillenmesinde kritik bir rol oynamaktadır. Aile yapıları ve dinamikleri, tarihsel, kültürel ve toplumsal faktörlerle şekillenirken, bu faktörlerin aile içerisinde yaşanan sorunları, ilişkileri ve güç dengelerini nasıl etkilediği büyük bir önem taşımaktadır. 2025 yılı "Aile Yılı" olarak ilan edilmesi, aile olgusunun daha geniş bir perspektiften ele alınmasını ve bu konudaki farkındalığın artırılmasını hedeflemektedir.
Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, "Cilt: 28 Sayı: Özel Sayı" olarak 2026 yılında yayımlanacak olan Aile Yılı Özel Sayısı'na yönelik makale çağrısında bulunmaktadır. Bu özel sayı, aile yapılarını, rollerini ve dinamiklerini inceleyen çalışmalara ev sahipliği yapmayı hedeflemektedir.
Aile ile ilgili çalışmalara olan ihtiyaç, yalnızca bireysel düzeyde değil, toplumsal düzeyde de açıktır. Son yıllarda, aile içi ilişkilerin sağlıklı bir şekilde sürdürülmesi, toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliği, kadın hakları, çocuk sağlığı ve eğitim gibi konular ön plana çıkmış, bu konularda yapılacak bilimsel araştırmaların önemi artmıştır. Aile Yılı Özel Sayısı'nın hazırlanması, bu kritik meselelerin sistematik bir biçimde incelenmesine ve topluma duyurulmasına olanak sağlayacaktır.
Bu özel sayı, aile dinamiklerini, ilişkilerini ve sorunlarını derinlemesine inceleyen, özgün ve yenilikçi çalışmaları bir araya getirerek, alanında önemli bir kaynak oluşturmayı hedeflemektedir. Ayrıca, uzmanların görüşleri ve çeşitli disiplinlerden gelen katkılar sayesinde, aile kavramına dair güncel bakış açıları sunulacak, toplumsal fayda sağlanacaktır.
Aşağıda, özel sayıda kabul edilebilecek (ama bunlarla sınırlı olmayan) güncellenmiş konular listesi yer almaktadır:

• Aile Yapıları ve Değişimi
• Geleneksel ve Modern Aile Rolleri
• Aile İçi İletişim ve İlişkiler
• Ailedeki Psiko-Sosyal Dinamikler
• Aile İlişkilerinde Kültürel Farklılıklar
• Evlilik ve Boşanma Dinamikleri
• Aile ve Çocuk Gelişimi
• Ebeveynlik Stilleri ve Çocuk Üzerindeki Etkileri
• Aile Ekonomisi ve Sosyal Politika
• Aileyi Etkileyen Toplumsal Değişimler
• Aile ve Eğitim İlişkisi
• Ailede Şiddet ve Koruma Mekanizmaları
• Aile İçi Sağlık ve Refah
• Kadınların Aile İçindeki Rolü ve Değişen Dinamikleri
• Kadın Hakları ve Aile İlişkileri
• Kadının Aile Üyeleriyle İlişkileri ve Güç Dinamikleri
• Ailede Cinsiyet Eşitliği
İki bağımsız anonim hakem tarafından değerlendirmeden geçecek makaleler, kabul edilmesi halinde, Aralık 2026'da yayımlanacak özel sayımızda yer alacaktır. Gelecek sayıların dolmuş olması ve süreçte makale yoğunluğunun bulunması nedeniyle dergimiz, özel sayı dışında makale kabulüne kapalıdır. Özel sayı dışında dergimize gönderilen makaleler iade edilecektir.
Saygılarımızla