BÜYÜK GÜNAHLARI ÖNLEMEK İÇİN KÜÇÜKLERİNE İZİN VERMEK: TOLERANTIA, YAHUDİLER ve HAYAT KADINLARI

Yıl 2024, , 627 - 650, 25.06.2024

Mehmet Talha Kalkan

https://doi.org/10.33171/dtcfjournal.2024.64.1.25

Öz

Many scholars have argued that the concept of "tolerance" is inherently tied to a modern context, suggesting its emergence in early modern and Enlightenment Europe. Researchers focusing on the early modern period and the Enlightenment have largely neglected the Middle Ages, so there are few studies examining the relationship between this concept and the Middle Ages. Furthermore, the few studies that have looked at the relationship between tolerance and the Middle Ages have contributed to a lack of understanding, or at least a misinterpretation, of the period. The prevailing narrative that characterizes the Middle Ages as a "dark age" highlights a period in Europe that was dominated by ecclesiastical oppression and in which almost no alternative elements flourished, suggesting an environment incompatible with religious freedom and tolerance. Tolerance, considered one of the virtues a citizen should possess since Roman antiquity, took on a broader meaning in medieval Europe, influenced by Christianity and developing into a social attribute. In essence, tolerance helped the church to define the boundaries of what was considered good, moral and religious, and to determine what sins and crimes could be considered normal and tolerated by society. This study will provide insights into the workings of toleration by Jews and courtesans based on the perspectives of these scholars.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Medieval Ages, Europe, Sin, St. Augustine, Bernard of Clairvaux, Tolerance

BÜYÜK GÜNAHLARI ÖNLEMEK İÇİN KÜÇÜKLERİNE İZİN VERMEK: TOLERANTIA, YAHUDİLER ve HAYAT KADINLARI

Öz

Birçok araştırmacı, "hoşgörü" kavramının modern bir bağlama sahip olduğunu düşünerek onun Erken Modern ve Aydınlanma Avrupa’sında doğduğunu ifade etmişlerdir. Erken Modern ve Aydınlanma dönemlerine yoğunlaşan araştırmacılar, ilgili kavramın Ortaçağ sürecini ihmal etmişler, bu kavramın Ortaçağ ile ilişkisine dair son derece sınırlı sayıda çalışma ortaya koymuşlardır. Hoşgörü ile Ortaçağ arasındaki ilişkiye dair ortaya konan kısıtlı sayıda çalışma da Ortaçağ’ın tam anlaşılamamasına veya en azından yanlış anlaşılmasına sebebiyet vermiştir. Bu nedenle, birçokları tarafından "Karanlık Çağlar" olarak adlandırılan Ortaçağ boyunca Avrupa’ya kilise odaklı bir baskının hâkim olduğu ve neredeyse farklı olan hiçbir unsurun yaşamadığı vurgusu ön plana çıkarılmış, böyle bir ortamda da dinî özgürlüğün ve hoşgörünün barınamayacağına dair bir algı ortaya konmuştur. Öte yandan, Antik Roma’dan beri vatandaşların sahip olması gereken erdemlerden biri olarak görülen hoşgörü, Ortaçağ Avrupa’sında daha kapsayıcı bir manaya kavuşmuş, Hristiyanlığın da etkisiyle dinî bir anlam kazanarak toplumsal bir niteliğe dönüşmüştür. Esasen hoşgörü; kilisenin iyi, ahlâki ve dinî olanın sınırlarını çizmesine yardımcı olmuş, toplumun hangi günahları ve suçları normalleştirerek bu suçların ve günahların ağırlığını taşıyabileceğini belirlemiştir. İşbu çalışmada bu yazarların görüşleri üzerinden hoşgörünün Yahudiler ve hayat kadınları vasıtasıyla nasıl kullanışlı hale geldiği hakkında bilgiler sunulacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Ortaçağ, Avrupa, Aziz Agustinus, Clairvauxlu Bernard, Hoşgörü, Günah

Kaynakça

• Amari, M. (1854). Storia dei Musulmani Di Sicilia. Floransa: Felice Le Monnier.
• Augustinus, A. (2007). On Order. Indiana: St. Augustine's Press.
• Bejczy, I. (1997). Tolerantia: A Medieval Concept. Journal of the History of Ideas, 58(3), 365-384.
• Berger, D. (1972). The Attitude of St. Bernard of Clairvaux toward the Jews. Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, 40.
• Bernard, A. C. (1889). Life and Works of Saint Bernard (Abbot of Clairvaux). (J. Mabillon, Düzenleyen). Londra: Burns & Oates.
• Bernard, A. C. (1998). The Letters of St. Bernard of Clairvaux. (B. S. James, Çev.) Kalamazoo: Cistercian.
• Boswell, J. (1981). Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Brundage, J. A. (1976). Prostitution in the Medieval Canon Law. Signs, 1(4), 825-845.
• Classen, A. (2018). Toleration and Tolerance in Medieval and Early Modern European Literature. New York: Routledge.
• Costantino, A. (2010). Gli arabi in Sicilia. Palermo: Antares.
• Crompton, L. (2004). Homosexuality and Civilization. Amerika Birleşik Devletleri: Harvard University Press.
• Crotty, T. L. (2015). Reconciling Islam, Christianity and Judaism: Islam’s Special Role in Restoring Convivencia. New York: Springer.
• Curley, E. (2007). Hobbes and the Cause of Religious Toleration. P. Springborg (Ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes's Leviathan içinde (s. 309-334). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Damian, P. (1982). Book of Gomorrah: An Eleventh-Century Treatise Against Clerical Homosexual Practices. Wilfrid Laurier University Press: Waterloo.
• Davidson, H. A. (2005). Works, Moses Maimonides: The Man and His. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• De Dispensatione in Iure Canonico Praesertim Apud Decretistas et Decretalistas Usque ad Medium Saec. XVI. (1925). Brüj: De Meester.
• Domínguez, J. P. (2017). Introduction: Religious toleration in the Age of Enlightenment. History of European Ideas, 273-287.
• Finley, M. (1968). A History of Sicily: Medieval Sicily, 800-1713. Sicilya: Chatto & Windus.
• Forst, R. (2013). Toleration in Conflict: Past and Present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Friedberg, A. (Dü.). (1959). Corpus Iuris Canonici (Cilt 1-2). Graz: Akademische Druck.
• Friedberg, E. (Dü.). (1959). Decretum Magistri Gratiani, Corpus Iuris Canonici (Cilt 2). Graz: Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt.
• Gamer, J. T. (Dü.). (1965). Medieval Handbooks of Penance: A Translation of The Libri Poenitentiales and Selections from Related Documents. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Gamer, J. T. (Dü.). (1990). Medieval Handbooks of Penance: A Translation Of The Principal "Libri Poenitentiales" And Selections From Related Documents. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Gilchrist, J. (1988). The Perception of Jews in the Canon Law in the Period of the First Two Crusades. Jewish History, 9-24.
• Gratian: The Treatise on Laws with The Ordinary Gross (Decretum DD.1-20). (1993). Washington: The Catholic University of America Press.
• Grell, O. &. (1999). Toleration in Enlightenment Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Herzig, T. (2003). The Demons’ Reaction to Sodomy: Witchcraft and Homosexuality in Gianfrancesco Pico della Mirandola’s “Strix.”. The Sixteenth Century Journal, 53-72.
• Hildegard, B. (1987). Hildegard of Bingen's Book of Divine Works: With Letters and Songs. Vermont: Inner Traditions/Bear.
• Hobbes, T. (1889). The Elements of Law: Natural and Politic. Londra: Simpkin Marshall.
• Hrisostomos, I. (1956). Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: First Series, Volume XI: St. Chrysostom: Homilies of the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistle to the Romans (Cilt XI). (P. Schaff, Çev.) Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
• Hume, D. (1904). Essays Moral, Political and Literary. Londra: Grant Richards.
• Jacqueline Broad, K. G. (Dü.). (2007). Virtue, Liberty, and Toleration: Political Ideas of European Women, 1400-1800. Dordrecht: Springer.
• Johns, J. (2002). Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Diwan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Jubayr, I. (. (2019). The travels of Ibn Jubayr: A Medieval Journey From Cordoba To Jerusalem. New York: I.B. Tauris.
• Klaits, J. (1987). Servants of Satan: The Age of the Witch Hunts. Indiana: Indiana University Press.
• Kroemer, J. (2012). Vanquish the Haughty and Spare the Subjected: A Study of Bernard of Clairvaux’s Position on Muslims and Jews. Medieval Encounters, 18, 55-92.
• Krusé, C. (1963). History of the concept of Tolerance. World Futures: The Journal of New Paradigm Research, 2(1), 4-10.
• Lacorne, D. (2019). The Limits of Tolerance. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Lecler, J. (1955). Histoire de la tolérance au siècle de la Réforme. Paris: Aubier.
• Lewis, B. (1984). The Jews of Islam. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
• Locke, J. (2012). Hoşgörü Üzerine Bir Mektup. İstanbul: Liberte.
• Lombardini, J. (2015). Stoicism and the Virtue of Toleration. History of Political Thought, 36(4), 643-669.
• Mendola, L. &. (2013). The peoples of Sicily: A multicultural legacy. New York: Trinacria Editions Llc.
• Metcalfe, A. (2009). The Muslims of medieval Italy. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
• Migne, J.-P. (Dü.). (1884). Patrologiae Latinae Cursus Completus. (J. S. Ott, Çev.) Paris: Apud Garnier Fratres.
• Monk, N. t. (1957). The Rudder (Pedalion) of the Metaphorical Ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or All the Sacred and Divine Canons. Brookfield: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society.
• Moore, R. (2007). The Formation of a Persecuting Society: Authority and Deviance in Western Europe 950–1250. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
• O’Grady, S. (2019). In the Name of God: A History of Christian and Muslim Intolerance. Londra: Atlantic Books.
• Porter, O. P. (2000). Toleration in Enlightenment Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Powell, J. M. (1990). Muslims Under Latin Rule, 1100-1300. New Jersey: Princeton Legacy Library.
• Rist, R. (2016). Popes and Jews, 1095-1291. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Stern, A. (1963). Tolerance: An historical introduction. World Futures: The Journal of New Paradigm Research, 2(1), 10-20.
• Stillingfleet, E. (1680). Mischief of Separation. Londra: Henry Mortlock.
• Stow, K. (2007). Popes, Church, and Jews in the Middle Ages: Confrontation and Response. Farnharm: Ashgate Publishing.
• Tommaso, A. (1947). Summa Theologica. (F. O. Province, Çev.). New York: Benziger Bros.
• Turchetti, M. (1999). Réforme & Tolérance, Un Binôme Polysémique. N. P. Waterloo (Ed.). Tolerance et Reforme: Elements pour une genealogie du concept de tolerance içinde (C. 32, s. 9-29). Paris: Editions L'Harmattan.
• Voltaire. (2015). Tratado Sobre la Tolerancia. (C. d. Dampierre, Çev.). Madrid: Editorial Tecnos.
• Zagorin, P. (2003). How the Idea of Religious Toleration Came to the West. New York: Princeton University Press.