Sahel Region and Türkiye

Öz

Over the past decade, Turkey has significantly increased its interaction with Africa. This study focuses on analyzing the strategic motivations and evolution of Turkey’s engagement in the Sahel region. For many scholars, since the early 2000s, Turkey’s foreign policy has been seen as shifting from a West-oriented approach to an East-oriented one, and Turkey’s activities in Sub-Saharan Africa reflect this shift. This article aims to offer an alternative perspective by arguing that Turkey’s geopolitical imagination and its understanding of a national role as a ‘central country’ provide a deeper understanding of its policies in Africa and beyond. By examining Turkey’s presence in the Sahel through case studies in defense, education, and infrastructure, the study emphasizes how these frameworks shape Turkey’s engagement in line with its goal of being a leading state within the Afro-Eurasian region. Although bilateral relations have increased, no Sahel country is among Turkey’s top ten trade partners in Africa, and most of Turkish trade and investment remains in North Africa. Nevertheless, Ankara is aware that the Sahara has become a critical front in the competition among global and regional powers.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Türkiye
• Geopolitics
• National Interest
• Sahel Region

Sahel Bölgesi ve Türkiye

Öz

Son on yılda Türkiye, Afrika ile etkileşimini önemli ölçüde artırmıştır. Bu çalışma, Türkiye’nin SAHEL bölgesindeki katılımının stratejik motivasyonlarını ve evrimini analiz etmeye odaklanmaktadır. Birçok akademisyen için, 2000’li yılların başından bu yana Türkiye’nin dış politikası, Batı odaklı bir yaklaşımdan Doğu’ya dönük bir yaklaşıma kaymış olarak görülmektedir ve Türkiye’nin Sahra Altı Afrika’daki faaliyetleri de bu değişimi yansıtmaktadır. Bu makale, Türkiye’nin jeopolitik tahayyülü ve ‘merkez ülke’ olarak ulusal rol anlayışının Afrika’daki ve ötesindeki politikalarını daha derinlemesine anlamayı sağladığını savunarak alternatif bir bakış açısı sunma amacındadır. Türkiye’nin Sahra Bölgesi’ndeki mevcudiyetinin, savunma, eğitim ve altyapı alanlarındaki vaka çalışmaları üzerinden inceleyerek, bu çerçevelerin Türkiye’nin medeniyet devletleri ve Afro-Avrasya alanında önder olma hedefi doğrultusunda yürüttüğü katılımı nasıl şekillendirdiğine vurgu yapmaktadır. Çalışma, ulusal rol kavramı ve jeopolitik hayal gücünün ülkenin motivasyonlarını analiz etmedeki açıklayıcı gücüne de değinmektedir. Ancak tüm bu girişimlere rağmen, bu durum Sahel’in büyük bir Türk ekonomik ve siyasi stratejisinin tam bir bileşeni olduğu anlamına gelmemektedir. İkili İlişkiler artmış olsa da hiçbir Sahel ülkesi Türkiye’nin Afrika’daki ilk on ticaret ortağı arasında yer almamaktadır ve Türk ticareti ile yatırımlarının çoğu Kuzey Afrika’da kalmaktadır. Ancak buna rağmen Ankara, Sahra’nın küresel ve bölgesel güçler arasında rekabetin kritik bir cephe haline geldiğinin farkındadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Türkiye
• Sahel Bölgesi
• Jeopolitik
• Ulusal Çıkar

Kaynakça

1. Adigbuo, R. (2007). Beyond IR Theories: The Case for National Role Conceptions. Politikon, 34(1), 83-97. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589340701336286
2. Agnew, J. (2004). Geopolitics: Re-visioning World Politics. Londra: Routledge.
3. Akca, A. (2019). Neo-Ottomanism: Turkey’s Foreign Policy Approach to Africa. New Perspectives in Foreign Policy, (17), 3-8.
4. Akdeniz, E., ve Göker, E. (2011). The Historical “Stickiness” of Nationalism Inside Turkey’s Political Field. Turkish Studies, 12(3), 309-340. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683849.2011.604218
5. Akgün, B., ve Özkan, M. (2020). Turkey’s Entrance to International Education: The Case of Turkish Maarif Foundation. Insight Türkiye, 22(1), 59-71.
6. Angey-Sentuc, G. (2015). Challenging the Soft Power Analysis. A Case Study of African Students in the Gülen Movement’s Turkey. European Journal of Turkish Studies Social Sciences on Contemporary Türkiye, (21), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.4000/ejts.5254
7. Arai, M. (2021). Turkish Nationalism in the Young Turk era, vol. 43. Leiden: Brill.
8. Aras, B. (2018). Reform and Capacity Building in the Turkish Foreign Ministry: Bridging the Gap Between Ideas and Institutions. Turkey, The Arab Spring and Beyond içinde (ss. 29-45). Aras, B. ve Keyman, F. (Ed.). Londra: Routledge.

9. Aras, B., & Fidan. H. (2009). Turkey and Eurasia: Frontiers of a New Geographic Imagination. New Perspectives on Türkiye, (40), 193-215. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0896634600005276
10. Armaoğlu, F. (2018). 20 Yüzyıl Siyasi Tarihi (1914-1995). İstanbul: İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları.
11. Aydin, M. (2013). Determinants of Turkish Foreign Policy: Historical Framework and Traditional Inputs. Seventy-Five Years of the Turkish Republic içinde (ss. 152-186). Kedourie, S. (Ed.). Londra: Routledge.
12. Babacan, M. (2020). “Teoriden Pratiğe Türkiye’nin Ortadoğu Politikası Kıyamet Coğrafyasında Denge, Süreklilik ve Değişim”, Uluslararası Politika Akademisi, http://politikaakademisi.org/2020/04/07/teoriden-pratige-turkiyenin-ortadogu-politikasi kiyamet-cografyasinda-denge-sureklilik-ve-degisim/ (Erişim Tarihi 13.06.2026).
13. Başer, E. T. (2015). Shift-of-Axis in Turkish Foreign Policy: Turkish National Role Conceptions Before And During AKP Rule. Turkish Studies, 16(3), 291-309. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683849.2015.1050958
14. Bilgin, P. (2009). Securing Turkey Through Western-Oriented Foreign Policy. New Perspectives on Turkey, (40), 103-123. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0896634600005239
15. Brunn, S. D. (1998.) A Treaty of Silicon for the Treaty of Westphalia? New Territorial Dimensions of Modern Statehood. Geopolitics, 3(1), 106-131. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650049808407610
16. Bulur, M. (2018). “Turkish Aid Body Restores Ottoman Legacy in Niger”, Anadolu Ajansı, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/turkish-aid-body-restores-ottoman-legacy-in-niger/1263323 (Erişim Tarihi 12.02.2026).
17. Calis, S. (1995). The Turkish State’s Identity and Foreign Policy Decision-Making Process. Mediterranean Quarterly, 6(2), 135-155.
18. Cannon, B. J. (2021). Turkey’s Military Strategy in Africa. Turkey in Africa: A New Emerging Power? içinde (ss. 160-177). Tepeciklioğlu, E. E. ve Tepeciklioğlu, A. O. (Ed.). Londra: Routledge.
19. Cannon, B. J., ve Donelli, F. (2024). Turkey-Africa Relations and Turkey’s National Role Conception as the Centre Country: Continuity or a Break with the Past? Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 26(3), 295-310. https://doi.org/10.1080/19448953.2023.2236511
20. Cantir, C., ve Kaarbo, J. (2012). Contested Roles and Domestic Politics: Reflections on Role Theory in Foreign Policy Analysis and IR Theory. Foreign Policy Analysis, 8(1), 5-24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-8594.2011.00156.x
21. Carbone, G., ve Casola, C. (2022). Sahel: 10 Years of Instability. Local, Regional and International Dynamics. ISPI.
22. Chérif, M. H. (1999). Algeria, Tunisia and Libya: The Ottomans and Their Heirs. General History of Africa, (5), 233-261.
23. Çiftçi, S., ve Ertugay, F. (2011). Türkiye’nin Dış Politikası Bağlamında Ortadoğu’ya Yönelik Tutumlar: Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Algıları Hakkında Bir Alan Tartışması. Uluslararası Hukuk ve Politika, 7(28), 1-26.
24. Del Sarto, R. A., ve Soler i Lecha, E. (2024). Regionalism and Alliances in the Middle East, 2011- 2021: From a “Flash in the Pan” of Regional Cooperation to Liquid Alliances. Geopolitics, 29(4), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2023.2268542
25. Donelli, F. (2019). The Gülen Movement in Africa: From Turkish Transnational Asset to Anti-State Lobby. Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs, 13(1), 67-80. https://doi.org/10.1080/23739770.2019.1632588
26. Donelli, F. (2020). Explaining the Role of Intervening Variables in Turkey’s Foreign Policy Behaviour. Interdisciplinary Political Studies, 6(2), 1-35.
27. Donelli, F. (2021). Turkey in Africa: Turkey’s strategic involvement in Sub-Saharan Africa. Bloomsbury.
28. Donelli, F. (2022). UAVs and beyond: Security and defence sector at the core of Turkey’s strategy in Africa. Berlin: Megatrends Afrika. https://doi.org/10.18449/2022MTA-PB02
29. Duran, H. ve Özdemir, Ç. (2014). Türk Dış Politikasına Yansımalarıyla Arap Baharı. Akademik İncelemeler Dergisi, 7(2), 181-198.
30. Durgun, Ş. (2020). Türk Ulusal Kimliğinin Dönüşümü ve Yeni Osmanlıcılık. Stratejik ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 4(2), 299-316.
31. Edib, H. (1935). Conflict of East and West in Turkey. Yeni Delhi: Jamia Millia Extension Lectures.
32. Esen, B., & Gumuscu, S. (2018). Building a Competitive Authoritarian Regime: State–Business Relations in the AKP’s Turkey. Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 20(4), 349-372. https://doi.org/10.1080/19448953.2018.1385924
33. Georgeon, F. (2003). Abdulhamid II: Le Sultan Calife. Paris: Fayard.
34. Ghanem, D. (2018). “The Sahel: Europe´s African Borders”, European Institute of the Mediterranean, https://www.iemed.org/publication/the-sahel-europes-african-borders/ (Erişim Tarihi 12.02.2026).
35. Glaser, C. L. (2014). Realists as Optimists: Cooperation as Self-help. The Realism Reader içinde (ss. 157-166). Elman, C. ve Jensen, M. (Ed.). Londra: Routledge.
36. Gokay, B. (2015). Reflections on Turkish Foreign Policy Under Davutoglu: From Status quo to a “New” Grand Strategy? Journal of Global Faultlines, 2(2), 44-49. https://doi.org/10.13169/jglobfaul.2.2.0044
37. Güder S. ve Mercan, M. H. (2012). 2000 Sonrası Türk Dış Politikasının Temel Parametreleri ve Orta Doğu Politikası. İnsan ve Toplum, 2(3), 57-92.
38. Güney, A. (2015). Imagining ‘Europe as an Empire’: Competing/Converging Geopolitical Imaginations and EU Enlargements. Revisiting the European Union as Empire içinde (ss. 96-114). Behr, H. ve Stivachtis, Y. (Ed.). Routledge.
39. Güney, A., & F. Gökcan, F. (2010). The ‘Greater Middle East’ as a ‘Modern’ Geopolitical Imagination in American Foreign Policy. Geopolitics, 15(1), 22-38. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650040903420370
40. Hale, W. (2002). Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774-2000. Londra: Frank Cass.
41. Haugom, L. (2019). Turkish Foreign Policy Under Erdogan: A Change in International Orientation? Comparative Strategy, 38(3), 206-223. https://doi.org/10.1080/01495933.2019.1606662
42. Hazar, N. (2011). Küreselleşme Sürecinde Afrika ve Türkiye-Afrika İlişkileri. Ankara: USAK Yayınları.
43. Hisarlıoğlu, F. (2022). A Critical Geopolitical Reading of Turkish Foreign Policy: Critical Readings of Türkiye’s Foreign Policy içinde (ss. 49-74). Erdoğan, B. ve Hisarlıoğlu, F. (Ed.). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
44. Hollis, M., & Smith, S. (1986). Roles and Reasons in Foreign Policy Decision Making. British Journal of Political Science, 16(3), 269-286. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400004415
45. Holsti, K. J. (1970). National Role Conceptions in the Study of Foreign Policy. International Studies Quarterly, 14(3), 233-309. https://doi.org/10.2307/3013584
46. Ince, B. (2012). Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk’s Republic to the Present Day. Londra: Bloomsbury Publishing.
47. Kardaş, Ş. (2010). Turkey: Redrawing the Middle East Map or Building Sandcastles? Middle East Policy, 17(1), 115-136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4967.2010.00430.x
48. Karpat, K. H. (1975). Turkey’s Foreign Policy in Transition: 1950-1974, Vol. 17. Leiden: Brill Archive.
49. Kasaba, R., & Bozdogan, S. (2000). Turkey at a Crossroad. Journal of International Affairs, 54(1), 1-20.
50. Kelly, P. (2006). A Critique of Critical Geopolitics. Geopolitics, 11(1), 24–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650040500524053
51. Keskin, M. (1998). Atatürk’e Göre Millet ve Türk Milliyetçiliği. Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi, 14(41), 360-373.
52. Keyder, Ç. (2016). Europe and Turkish Identity. Challenging Identities içinde (ss. 135-49). New York: Routledge.
53. Kharief, A. (2022). “Diplomats, Spies, and Arms Deals: How Turkey Grows its Soft Power in North Africa and Beyond”, Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung, https://www.rosalux.de/en/news/id/46772/diplomats-spies-and-arms-deals (Erişim Tarihi 12.02.2026).
54. Kirsch, S. ve Flint, C. (2015). Geographies of Reconstruction: Re-thinking Post-war Spaces. The Politics of International Intervention içinde (ss. 39-58). Londra: Routledge.
55. Kösebalaban, H. (2011). Turkish Foreign Policy: Islam, Nationalism, and Globalization. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
56. Kurç, Ç. (2024). No Strings Attached: Understanding Turkey’s Arms Exports to Africa. Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 26(3), 378-395. https://doi.org/10.1080/19448953.2023.2236515
57. Kutlay, M., & Öniş, Z. (2021). Turkish Foreign Policy in a Post-Western Order: Strategic Autonomy or New Forms of Dependence? International Affairs, 97(4), 1085-1104. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiab094
58. Le Monde. (2024). “Africa, The New Playground for Drone Exporters”, https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2024/01/05/africa-the-new-playground-for-drone- exporters_6405337_4.html (Erişim Tarihi 12.02.2026).
59. Mamadouh, V., ve Dijkink, G. (2006). Geopolitics, International Relations and Political Geography: The Politics of Geopolitical Discourse. Geopolitics, 11(3), 349-366. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650040600767859
60. Mansbach, R., & Rhodes, E. (2007). The National State and Identity Politics: State Institutionalisation and “Markers” of National Identity. Geopolitics, 12(3), 426-458. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650040701305633
61. Martin, G. (1985). The Historical, Economic, and Political Bases of France’s African Policy. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 23(2), 189-208. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X00000148
62. Minawi, M. (2016). The Ottoman Scramble for Africa: Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.
63. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Türkiye. (2023). National Foreign Policy in the “Century of Türkiye”: A Synopsis. Ankara: Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
64. Öniş, Z. (2004). Turgut Özal and His Economic Legacy: Turkish Neo-liberalism in Critical Perspective. Middle Eastern Studies, 40(4), 113-134. https://doi.org/10.1080/00263200410001700338
65. Öniş, Z., ve Yilmaz, Ş. (2009). Between Europeanization and Euro‐Asianism: Foreign Policy Activism in Turkey During the AKP Era. Turkish Studies, 10(1), 7-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683840802648562
66. Ó Tuathail, G. (1997). At the End of Geopolitics? Reflections on a Plural Problematic at the Century’s End. Alternatives, 22(1), 35-55. https://doi.org/10.1177/030437549702200102
67. Ó Tuathail, G. (2002). Postmodern Geopolitics?: The Modern Geopolitical Imagination and Beyond. Rethinking Geopolitics içinde (ss. 28-50). Dalby, S. ve Ó Tuathail, G. (Ed.). Londra: Routledge.
68. Özkan, M. (2012). Türkiye’nin Afrika’da Artan Rolü: Pratik Çabalar ve Söylem Arayışları. Middle Eastern Analysis/Ortadogu Analiz, 4(46), 19-28.
69. Panossian, R. (2002). The Past as Nation: Three Dimensions of Armenian Identity. Geopolitics, 7(2), 121-46. https://doi.org/10.1080/714000931
70. Parlar Dal, E. (2012). The Transformation of Turkey’s Relations with the Middle East: Illusion or Awakening? Turkish Studies, 13(2), 245-267. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683849.2012.685257
71. Parlar Dal, E., ve Dipama, S. (2023). “Assessing Turkey-Africa Engagements”, Africa Policy Research Institute, https://afripoli.org/uploads/publications/APRI-turkey-Africa-relations.pdf (Erişim Tarihi 12.02.2026).
72. Pehlivanturk, B. (2019). The Effects of National Role Conceptions on Bilateral Relations: Japan-Turkey Relationship in Quests of Identity. Asia-Pacific Review, 26(2), 105-126.
73. Roberts, J. M. (2010). Avrupa Tarihi (çev. Fethi Aytuna). İstanbul: İnkılâp Kitabevi Yayınları. Robins, P. (1997). Turkish Foreign Policy Under Erbakan. Survival, 39(2), 82-100. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396339708442913
74. Rossiter, A., ve Cannon, B. J. (2019). Re-examining the ‘Base’. Insight Turkey, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.25253/99.2019211.09
75. Rossiter, A. ve Cannon, B. J. (2022). Turkey’s Rise as a Drone Power: Trial by Fire. Defense & Security Analysis, 38(2), 210-229. https://doi.org/10.1080/14751798.2022.2068562
76. Rygiel, K. (2002). Stabilizing Borders: The Geopolitics of National Identity Construction in Turkey. Rethinking Geopolitics içinde (ss. 118-142). Dalby, S. ve Ó Tuathail, G. (Ed.). Londra: Routledge.
77. Satanakis, S. M. ve Süss, K. (2021). The Shift in Turkey’s Foreign Policy. Viyana: Austria Institut für Europa-und Sicherheitspolitik.
78. Schritt, J. (2016). From Nuclear Imperialism to Petro-democracy? Resource Assemblages and the Emergence of a New Political Configuration in Niger. Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue Canadienne des études Africaines, 50(2), 229-254. https://doi.org/10.1080/00083968.2016.1202850
79. Shinn, D. H. 2015. Hizmet in Africa: The Activities and Significance of the Gülen Movement. Los Angeles: Tsehai.
80. Sözen, A. (2013). A Paradigm Shift in Turkish Foreign Policy: Transition and Challenges. Islamization of Türkiye under the AKP Rule içinde (ss. 101-121). Yesilada, B. ve Rubin, B. (Ed.). Londra: Routledge.
81. Şahin, G. (2018). Afrika’nın Sömürgeleştirilme Sürecinde Berlin Konferansı (1884-1885) ve Afrika Basınına Yansımaları. History Studies, 10(1), 247-268. https://doi.org/10.9737/hist.2018.579
82. Talbot, V. ve Magri, P. (2018). Turkey: Towards a Eurasian Shift? Milan: Ledizioni Ledi Publishing. T. C. Millî Savunma Bakanlığı. (2024). “The Offices of the Military Attaches in Abroad”, https://www.msb.gov.tr/SavunmaGuvenlik/icerik/the-offices-of-the-military-attaches-in-abroadpdf (Erişim Tarihi 12.02.2026).
83. Tanchum, M. (2021). “Turkey’s Maghreb-West Africa Economic Architecture: Challenges and Opportunities for the European Union”, German Institute for International and Security Affairs, Centre for Applied Turkey Studies, no. 3. https://www.swp- berlin.org/publications/products/arbeitspapiere/CATS_Working_Paper_Nr_3_Michael_Tanchum_Turkeys_Maghreb_West_Africa_Economic_Architecture.pdf (Erişim Tarihi 12.02.2026).
84. Tepeciklioğlu, E. E., Vreÿ, F., ve Baser, B. (2023). Introduction Türkiye and Africa: Motivations, Challenges and Future Prospects. Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 26(3), 1-6. https://doi.org/10. 1080/19448953.2023.2236514
85. Todorović, M. (2021). TİKA’s Heritage Restoration Projects: Examples of Foreign Aid or Proof of Neo-Ottomanism? Insight Türkiye, 23(3), 141-156. https://doi.org/10.25253/99.2021233.8
86. Tombuş, H. E., ve Aygenç, B. (2017). (Post-) Kemalist Secularism in Türkiye. Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 19(1), 70-85. https://doi.org/10.1080/19448953.2016.1201995
87. Tuncer, B. (1975). External Financing of the Turkish Economy and Its Foreign Policy Implications. Türkiye’s Foreign Policy in Transition, 1950-1974 içinde (ss. 206-224). Karpat, K. H. (Ed.). Leiden: Brill.
88. Turan, A. (2023). Ak Parti Döneminde Yaşanan Dış Politika Sarmalı: Sebepler, Araçlar ve Örnekler. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (78), 66-101.
89. Tüysüzoğlu, G. (2013). Milenyum Sonrası Türk Dış Politikası: Yeni Osmanlıcılık ve Türk Avrasyacılığı Ekseninde iİnşa Edilen bir Pragmatizm. Alternatif Politika, 5(3), 295-323.
90. Ulusoy, K. (2024). The Montreux Convention: A Key for Understanding the Geopolitics of the Eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea. Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683857.2024.2433800
91. Uçar, A. (2000). 140 Yıllık Miras: Güney Afrika’da Osmanlılar. İstanbul: Tez Yayınları.
92. Uzgel, İ. ve Yaramış, V. (2009). “Özal’dan Davutoğlu’na Türkiye’de Yeni Osmanlıcı Arayışlar”, Academia, https://www.academia.edu/41183129/%C3%96zaldan_ Davuto%C4%9Fluna_T%C3%BCrkiyede_Yeni_Osmanl%C4%B1c%C4%B1_ Aray%C4%B1%C5%9Flar (Erişim Tarihi 12.06.2026).
93. Volkan, V. D. (2000). Large Group Identity and Chosen Trauma. Psyche-Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse und Ihre Anwendungen, 54(9-10), 931-953.
94. Walker, S. G. (1987). Role Theory and Foreign Policy Analysis. Durham: Duke University Press.
95. Wish, N. B. (1980). Foreign Policy Makers and Their National Role Conceptions. International Studies Quarterly, 24(4), 532-554. https://doi.org/10.2307/2600291
96. Yahya, E. (2023). “What Makes Türkiye’s Universities a Magnet for African Students”, TRT Afrika, https://www.trtafrika.com/insight/what-makes-turkiyes-universities-a-magnet-for-african-students-12288730 (Erişim Tarihi 12.02.2026).
97. Yavuz, M. H. (2020). Nostalgia for the Empire: The politics of Neo-Ottomanism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
98. Yavuz, M. H., ve Koç, R. (2016). The Turkish Coup Attempt: The Gülen Movement vs. The State. Middle East Policy, 23(4), 136-148. https://doi.org/10.1111/mepo.12239
99. Yelçe, N. Z. (2021). Palace and City Ceremonials. A Companion to Early Modern Istanbul içinde (ss. 143-167). Hamadeh, S. ve Kafescioğlu, Ç. (Ed.). Leiden: Brill.