Determinants of Academic Achievement in Turkey

Öz

The relationship of in-school and out-of-school factors with academic achievement has been subject to long-term discussion in the context of educational equality. In Turkey, the achievement gap between schools is relatively high, therefore, examining the factors related to achievement is crucial to the mitigation of these differences. Related studies generally utilize international large-scale assessments and yield results for particular school types. Therefore, the current study aims to determine the factors related to academic achievement by using data from a student population who took the 2020 High School Transition System (LGS). Accordingly, this study is novel in that it examined the factors related to academic achievement in a high-stake test in Turkey. Data analysis used two-level hierarchical linear modeling. The results demonstrated that between-school variance in LGS achievement is relatively low compared with international large-scale assessments, such as the PISA and TIMSS. The variable with the most significant relationship with student achievement is socioeconomic status followed by teacher seniority, school size, and class size. Moreover, the relationships of the student–teacher ratio and participation in in-service training to achievement are nonsignificant. The results highlight the importance of academic support for socioeconomically disadvantaged students.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Academic achievement
• school characteristics
• equality of opportunity
• LGS
• socioeconomic status

Türkiye’de Akademik Başarının Belirleyicileri

Öz

Eğitimde okul içi ve okul dışı özelliklerin akademik başarı ile ilişkisi uzun süredir eğitimde fırsat eşitliği bağlamında tartışılmaktadır. Okullar arası başarı farklarının görece yüksek olduğu Türkiye’de bu farkların azaltılabilmesi için başarıyla ilişkili faktörlerin belirlenmesi gerekmektedir. Bu amaçla yapılan çalışmalar çoğunlukla PISA ve TIMSS gibi uluslararası başarı izleme araştırmalarını dikkate almış ve belirli okul türlerine yönelik sonuçlar sağlamıştır. Bu çalışmada 2020 yılı Liselere Geçiş Sistemi (LGS) kapsamındaki merkezi sınava katılan tüm öğrencilerin verileri kullanılarak akademik başarıyla ilişkili faktörlerin belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Böylece Türkiye’de yüksek beklentili bir sınavdaki başarıyı açıklayan faktörler ilk kez tüm öğrenci evreni üzerinden belirlenmiştir. Verilerin analizinde öğrenci ve okul olmak üzere iki düzeyli hiyerarşik lineer modelleme kullanılmıştır. Araştırma bulguları, LGS merkezi sınavında okullar arası başarı varyansının, uluslararası başarı izleme çalışmalarına kıyasla düşük olduğunu göstermiştir. Öğrenci başarısı ile en güçlü ilişkiye sahip değişkenin okul sosyoekonomik düzeyi olduğu, bu değişkeni öğretmen kıdemi, okul büyüklüğü ve sınıf büyüklüğünün takip ettiği belirlenmiştir. Öğretmen başına düşen öğrenci sayısı ve hizmet içi eğitime katılım sayısı ise öğrenci başarısı ile anlamlı bir ilişki göstermemiştir. Okul ve öğrenci seviyelerindeki sosyoekonomik düzeyin öğrenci başarısı ile en güçlü ilişkiye sahip olan değişkenler olması, sosyoekonomik açıdan dezavantajlı öğrencilerin ihtiyaç duyduğu akademik desteklerin önemini ortaya koymaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Akademik başarı
• okul özellikleri
• eğitimde fırsat eşitliği
• LGS
• sosyoekonomik düzey

Kaynakça

1. Acar Güvendir, M. (2014). Öğrenci başarılarının belirlenmesi sınavında öğrenci ve okul özelliklerinin Türkçe başarısı ile ilişkisi. Eğitim ve Bilim, 39(172), 163-180. google scholar
2. Akkalkan, H. (2009). Ankara ili Çankaya ilçesinde okul büyüklüğünün öğrencilerin akademik başarısı, okula devamı ve disiplini ile ilişkisi. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, Türkiye. google scholar
3. Akyüz, G. (2006). Investigation of the effect of teacher and class characteristics on mathematics achievement in Turkey and European Union countries. Elementary Education Online, 5(2), 75-86. google scholar
4. Al Şensoy, S., ve Sağsöz, A. (2015). Öğrenci başarısının sınıfların fiziksel koşulları ile ilişkisi. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 16(3), 87-104. google scholar
5. Alspaugh, J. W. (1994). The relationship between school size, student teacher ratio and school efficiency. Education, 114(4), 593-601. google scholar
6. Andrews, M., Duncombe, W., & Yinger, J. (2002). Revisiting economies of size in American education: are we any closer to a consensus? Economics of Education Review, 21(3), 245-262. google scholar
7. Arifoğlu, A. (2019). Öğrenci başarısına okul etkisinin araştırılması: TIMSS 2015 Türkiye verisine göre çok düzeyli bir analiz. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Türkiye. google scholar
8. Aydın, M. (2015). Öğrenci ve okul kaynaklı faktörlerin TIMSS matematik başarısına etkisi. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi, Konya. google scholar

9. Barber, M., & Mourshed, M. (2007). How the world’s best-performing school systems come out on top. McKinsey & Company. Retrieved from https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public-and-social-sector/our-insights/how-the-worlds-best-performing-school-systems-come-out-on-top google scholar
10. Barry C. L., Horst S. J., Finney S. J., Brown A. R., & Kopp, J. P. (2005). Do examinees have similar test-taking effort? A high-stakes question for low-stakes testing. Int J Test; https://doi.org/10.1080/15305058.2010.508569. google scholar
11. Belfi, B., Haelermans, C., & De Fraine, B. (2016). The long-term differential achievement effects of school socioeconomic composition in primary education: A propensity score matching approach. Br J Educ Psychol, 86(4), 501-525. google scholar
12. Berberoğlu, G., ve Kalender, İ. (2005). Öğrenci başarısının yıllara, okul türlerine, bölgelere göre incelenmesi: ÖSS ve PISA analizi. Eğitim Bilimleri ve Uygulama, 4(7), 21-35. google scholar
13. Bölükbaş, S., & Gür, B. S. (2020). Tracking and inequality: The results from Turkey. International Journal of Educational Development, 78. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102262 google scholar
14. Burns, R. J. (2002). Education and social change: A proactive or reactive role? International Review of Education, 48, 21-45. google scholar
15. Caldas, S. J., & Bankston, C. (1997). Effect of school population socioeconomic status on individual academic achievement. The Journal ofEducational Research, 90(5), 269-277. google scholar
16. Chingos, M. M. (2012). The impact of a universal class-size reduction policy: Evidence from Florida’s statewide mandate. Economics ofEducation Review, 31(5), 543-562. google scholar
17. Cingöz, Z. K., ve Gür, B. S. (2020). Ekonomik, sosyal ve kültürel statünün akademik başarıya etkisi: PISA 2015 ve TEOG 2017 sonuçlarının karşılaştırılması. İnsan ve Toplum, 10(4), 247-288. google scholar
18. Cole, J. S., & Osterlind, S. (2008). Investigating differences between low- and high-stakes test performance on a general education exam. The Journal of General Education, 57(2), 119-130. google scholar
19. Condron, D. (2009). Social class, school and non-school environments, and black/white ınequalities in children’s learning. American Sociological Review, 74(5), 683-708. google scholar
20. Cotton, K. (1996). School size, school climate, and student performance. School Improvement Research Series (SIRS). Retrieved from https://educationnorthwest.org/sites/default/files/SizeClimateandPerformance.pdf google scholar
21. Creswell, J. W. (2012). Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. California: Pearson Publishing. google scholar
22. Crispin, L. M. (2016). School size and student achievement: does one size fit all? Eastern Economic Journal, 42, 630-662. google scholar
23. Çelebi, Ö. (2010). A cross-cultural comparıson of the effect ofhuman and physical resources on students’ scientific literacy skills in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2006. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Ortadoğu Teknik Üniversitesi, Türkiye. google scholar
24. De Giorgi, G., Woolston, W., & Pellizzari, M. (2012). Class size and class heterogeneity. Journal of the European Economic Association, 10(4), 795-830. google scholar
25. De Paola, M., Ponzo, M., & Scoppa, V. (2009). Class size effects on student achievement: Heterogeneity across abilities and fields. Working Papers 200919. Retrieved from http://www.ecostat.unical.it/RePEc/ WorkingPapers/WP19_2009.pdf google scholar
26. Dee, T. S., & West, M. R. (2011). The non-cognitive returns to class size. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 33(1), 23-46. google scholar
27. Dinçer, M. A., ve Uysal Kolaşin, G. (2009). Türkiye’de öğrenci başarısında eşitsizliğin belirleyicileri. İstanbul: Eğitim Reformu Girişimi (ERG). google scholar
28. Egalite, A. J,. & Kisida, B. (2016) School size and student achievement: A longitudinal analysis. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 27(3), 406-417. google scholar
29. Ersan, O., & Rodriguez, M. C. (2020). Socioeconomic status and beyond: A multilevel analysis of TIMSS mathematics achievement given student and school context in Turkey. Large-scale Assess Educ, 8, 15. google scholar
30. Essel, R., Badu, E., Owusu-Boateng, W., & Saah, A. A. (2009). In-service training: An essential element in the professional development of teachers. Malaysian Journal of Distance Education, 11(2), 55-64. google scholar
31. Feldman, K. A. (1983). Seniority and experience of college teachers as related to evaluations they receive from students. Research in Higher Education, 18, 3-124. google scholar
32. Ferrâo, M. E., Costa, P. M., & Matos, D. A. S. (2017). The relevance of the school socioeconomic composition and school proportion of repeaters on grade repetition in Brazil: A multilevel logistic model of PISA 2012. Large-scale Assess Educ, 5, 7. google scholar
33. Friedkin, N., & Necochea, J. (1988). School system size and performance: A contingency perspective. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 10, 237-249. google scholar
34. Fuller, B. (1987). What school factors raise achievement in the third world? Review of Educational Research, 57(3), 255-292. google scholar
35. Gençoğlu, C. (2019). Millî bir destekleme ve yetiştirme sistemi modeli: İlkokullarda yetiştirme programı (İYEP). Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 48(1), 853-881. google scholar
36. Gershenson, S., & Langbein, L. (2015). The effect of primary school size on academic achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 37(1), 135S-155S. google scholar
37. Giambona, F., & Porcu, M. (2018). School size and students’ achievement: Empirical evidences from PISA survey data. Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, 64, 66-77. google scholar
38. Goldkind, L., & Farmer, G. (2013). The enduring influence of school size and school climate on parents’ engagement in the school community. The School Community Journal, 23, 223-244. google scholar
39. Gür, B. S., Çelik, Z., Bozgeyikli, H., ve Yurdakul, S. (2018). Eğitime bakış 2018: İzleme ve değerlendirme raporu. Ankara: EBSAM. google scholar
40. Jacob, B. A., & Lefgren, L. (2004). The impact of teacher training on student achievement: Quasi-experimental evidence from school reform efforts in Chicago. NBER Working Paper Series, Working Paper 8916. Retrieved from https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w8916/w8916.pdf google scholar
41. Jacobson, M. J., Levin, J. A., & Kapur, M. (2019). Education as a complex system: Conceptual and methodological implications. Educational Researcher, 48(2), 112-119. google scholar
42. Jepsen, C. (2015). Class size: Does it matter for student achievement. IZA World of Labor 190. Retrieved from https://wol.iza.org/uploads/articles/190/pdfs/class-size-does-it-matter-for-student-achievement.pdf. google scholar
43. Junejo, M. I., Sarwar, S., & Ahmed, R. R. (2017). Impact of in-service training on performance of teachers: A case of STEVTA Karachi Region. International Journal of Experiential Learning & Case Studies, 2(2), 50-60. google scholar
44. Haddad, W. D., Carnoy, M., Rinaldi, R., & Regel, O. (1990). Education and development. World Bank Discussion Papers No: 95. Retrieved from http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/871111468739527551/pdf/multi-page.pdf google scholar
45. Hampden-Thompson, G., & Johnston, J. (2006) Variation in the relationship between non school factors and student achievement on international assessments. Research Report. U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/72575/1/Non_school_factors.pdf google scholar
46. Harris, D. N., & Sass, T. R. (2007). Teacher training, teacher quality and student achievement. National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research (CALDER). Retrieved from https://caldercenter.org/sites/ default/files/1001059_Teacher_Training.pdf google scholar
47. Hawthorne, K. A., Bol, L., Pribesh, S., & Suh, Y. (2015). Effects of motivational prompts on motivation, effort, and performance on a low-stakes standardized test. Res PractAssess., 10: 30-38. google scholar
48. Hoxby, C. M. (2000). The effects of class size on student achievement: New evidence from population variation. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 115(4), 1239-1285. google scholar
49. Irvine, J. (2018). Relationship between teaching experience and teacher effectiveness: Implications for policy decisions. Journal of Instructional Pedagogies, 22, 1-19. google scholar
50. Kalfa, Y. (2006). Okul büyüklüğünün kalite, verim ve öğrenci başarısına etkileri. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, Türkiye. google scholar
51. Karakütük, K., & Tunç, B. (2004). Okul büyüklüğü-sınıf büyüklüğü. Akdeniz Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. Sayı 1. google scholar
52. Karasar, N. (2011). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. Ankara: Nobel Yayınları google scholar
53. Kersha, Y. (2020). School socioeconomic composition as a factor of educational inequality reproduction. Educational Studies Moscow, 4, 85-112. google scholar
54. Knoth Humlum, M., & Smith, N. (2014). Long-term effects of school size on students’ outcomes. IZA Discussion Paper No. 8032. Retrieved from http://anon-ftp.iza.org/dp8032.pdf google scholar
55. Li, I., & Dockery, M. (2014). Socio-economic status of schools and university academic performance: Implications for Australia’s higher education expansion. National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education (NCSEHE). Retrieved from https://www.ncsehe.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Li-and-Dockery-Schools-SES-22-Jan-edited_formatted.pdf google scholar
56. Lu, M., Loyalka, P., Sh, Y., Chang, F., Liu, C., & Rozelle, S. (2017). The impact of teacher professional development programs on student achievement in rural China. Stanford Center for International Development. Working Paper No. 600. Retrieved from https://siepr.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/publications/600wp_2.pdf google scholar
57. Marks, G. N., Creswell, J., & Ainley, J. (2007). Explaining socioeconomic inequalities in student achievement: The role of home and school factors. Educational Research and Evaluation, 12(2), 105-128. google scholar
58. Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S., Foy, P., & Hooper, M. (2016). TIMSS 2015 international results in science. Retrieved from Boston College, TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center. google scholar
59. McMillen, B. J. (2004). School size, achievement, and achievement gaps. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 12(58), 1-24. google scholar
60. MEB (2019). Türkçe-Matematik-Fen Bilimleri Öğrenci Başarı İzleme Araştırması (TMF-ÖBA)-I: 2019 4. sınıf seviyesi. Eğitim Analiz ve Değerlendirme Raporları Serisi No: 9. Ankara: MEB. google scholar
61. Mendolia, S., Paloyo, A. R., & Walker, I. (2018). Heterogeneous effects of high school peers on educational outcomes, Oxford Economic Papers, 70(3), 613-634. google scholar
62. Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Foy, P., Kelly, D. L., & Fishbein, B. (2020). TIMSS 2019 international results in mathematics and science. Retrieved from Boston College, TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center. google scholar
63. Murnane, J. R., & Phillips, B. R. (1981). What do effective teachers of inner-city children have in common?. Social Science Research, 10(1), 83-100. google scholar
64. Naylor, R., & Sayed, Y. (2014). Teacher quality: evidence review. Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Retrieved from https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/evidence-review-teacher-quality.pdf google scholar
65. Newman, D., & Newman, I. (2012). Multilevel modeling: Clarifying issues of concern. Multiple Linear Regression Viewpoints, 38(1), 26-33. google scholar
66. OECD (2005). School factors related to quality and equity results from PISA 2000. Retrieved from https://www. oecd.org/education/school/programmeforinternationalstudentassessmentpisa/34668095.pdf google scholar
67. OECD (2019). PISA 2018 results (Volume I). Paris: OECD Publishing. google scholar
68. Önder, E., ve Güçlü, N. (2019). İlköğretimde okullar arası başarı farklılıklarını azaltmaya yönelik çözüm önerileri. Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 40, 109-132. google scholar
69. Özdemir, N., ve Yalçın, M. T. (2019). Ortaöğretim öğrencilerinin akademik başarısı ile okul ve öğrenci düzeyi değişkenler arasındaki ilişkilerin incelenmesi: İki düzeyli yol analizi. Eğitim ve Bilim, 44(200), 93-116. google scholar
70. Özer, M., & Perc, M. (2020). Dreams and realities of school tracking and vocational education, Palgrave Communications, 6, 34. google scholar
71. Özer, M. (2020a). What PISA tells us about performance of education systems?. Bartın University Journal of Faculty of Education, 9(2), 217-228. google scholar
72. Özer, M. (2020b). Mesleki eğitimde paradigma değişimi: Türkiye’nin mesleki eğitim ile imtihanı. İstanbul: Maltepe Üniversitesi Yayınları. google scholar
73. Özer, M. (2021a). A new step towards narrowing the achievement gap in Turkey: “1,000 schools in vocational education and training” Project. Bartın University Journal of 'Faculty of Education, 10(1), 97-108. google scholar
74. Özer, M. (2021b). Eğitim politikalarında sistemik uyum. İstanbul: Maltepe Üniversitesi Yayınları. google scholar
75. Özer, M., & Perc, M. (2021). Impact of social networks on the labor market inequalities and school-to-work transitions. Journal of Higher Education, 11(1), 38-50. google scholar
76. Özer, M., Gençoğlu, C., ve Suna, H. E. (2021a). Türkiye’de eğitimde eşitsizlikleri azaltmak için uygulanan politikalar. Ondokuz Mayıs Universitesi Egitim Fakültesi, 39(2), 294-312. google scholar
77. Özer, M., Gençoğlu, C., ve Suna, H. E. (2021b). Okul öncesi eğitimin Türkiye’de gelişimi ve eşitsizlikleri azaltmadaki rolü. Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli Üniversitesi SBE Dergisi, 11(1), 356-370. google scholar
78. Özoğlu, M. (2015). Mobility-related teacher turnover and the unequal distribution of experienced teachers in Turkey. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 15(4), 891-909. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2015.4.2619 google scholar
79. Özoğlu, M., Gür, B. S., ve Altunoğlu, A. (2013). Türkiye ve dünyada öğretmenlik: Retorik ve pratik. Ankara: Eğitimciler Birliği Sendikası. google scholar
80. Perry, L., & McConney, A. (2010). School socio-economic composition and student outcomes in Australia: Implications for educational policy. Australian Journal of Education. 54. google scholar
81. Quagliata, T. (2008). ls there a positive correlation between socioeconomic status and academic achievement?. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, St. John Fisher College, Amerika. google scholar
82. Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. google scholar
83. Reimer Jones, K., & Ezeife, A. N. (2011). School size as a factor in the academic achievement of elementary school students. Psychology, 2(8), 859-868. google scholar
84. Richman, S., Demers, A., & Poznyak, D. (2019). What matters for student achievement? Exploring teacher instructional practices and the role of school-level and student-level characteristics. Washington, USA: Mathematica. Retrieved from https://www.mathematica.org/our-publications-and-findings/publications/what-matters-for-student-achievement-exploring-teacher-instructional-practices-and-the-role-of google scholar
85. Rockstroh, A. H. (2013). Teacher characteristics on student achievement: An examination of high schools in Ohio. Capstone Projects. Retrieved from https://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www. google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1048&context=mpampp_etds google scholar
86. Schwartz, R. M., Schmitt, M. C., & Lose, M. K. (2012). Effects of teacher-student ratio in response to ıntervention approaches. The Elementary School Journal, 112(4), 547-567. google scholar
87. Shafrir, R., Shavit, Y., & Blank, C. (2016). Is less really more? On the relationship between class size and educational achievement in Israel. State of the Nation Report: Society, Economy and Policy, 199-218. google scholar
88. Shapson, S. M. (1972). Optimum class size? A review of the literature. The Board of Education for the City of Toronto. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED070757.pdf google scholar
89. Suna, H. E., Tanberkan, H., & Özer, M. (2020). Changes in literacy students in Turkey by years and school types: Performance of students in PISA applications. Journal of Measurement and Evaluation in Education and Psychology, 11(1), 76-97. google scholar
90. Suna, H. E., Gür, B. S., Gelbal, S., & Özer, M. (2020a). Science high school students’ socioeconomic background and their preferences regarding their transition into higher education. Journal of Higher Education, 10(3), 356-370. google scholar
91. Suna, H. E., Tanberkan, H., Eroğlu, E., Özer, M., & Gür, B. S. (2020b). Horizontal skills mismatch in vocational education in Turkey: The reasons for out-of-field employment. İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyoloji Dergisi, 40(2), 931-955. google scholar
92. Suna, H. E., Tanberkan, H., Gür, B. S., Perc, M., & Özer, M. (2020c). Socioeconomic status and school type as predictors of academic achievement. Journal of Economy Culture and Society, 61(1), 41-64. google scholar
93. Suna, H. E., ve Özer, M. (2021a). Türkiye’de sosyoekonomik düzey ve okullar arası başarı farklarının akademik başarı ile ilişkisi. Eğitimde ve Psikolojide Ölçme ve Değerlendirme Dergisi, 12(1), 54-70. google scholar
94. Suna, H. E., & Özer, M. (2021b). The impact of school tracking on secondary vocational education and training in Turkey. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, doi: 10.16986/HUJE.2021068158 google scholar
95. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. google scholar
96. Taing, A. (2016). The impact of high school socioeconomic composition on college enrollment, persistence, and graduation: A multilevel multiple group analysis. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, California Riverside Üniversitesi, ABD. google scholar
97. Temple, J. (2001). Growth effects of education and social capital in the OECD countries. Retrieved from https:// www.oecd.org/innovation/research/1825293.pdf google schola
98. Usta, G., ve Şimşek, A. S. (2014). Okul büyüklüğü ile öğrenci başarısı arasındaki ilişkide aracı değişkenlerin etkisi: PISA 2012 Türkiye. IV. Ulusal Eğitimde ve Psikolojide Ölçme ve Değerlendirme Kongresi. Retreived from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269988139_Okul_Buyuklugu_ile_Ogrenci_Basarisi_Arasindaki_ Iliskide_Araci_Degiskenlerin_Etkisi_PISA_2012_Turkiye google scholar
99. Uzun, G., ve Çokluk Bökeoğlu, Ö. (2019). Akademik başarının okul, aile ve öğrenci özellikleri ile ilişkisinin çok düzeyli yapısal eşitlik modellemesi ile incelenmesi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 52(3), 655-684. google scholar
100. Xuan, X., Xue, Y., Zhang, C., Luo, Y., Jiang, W., & Qi, M.(2019) Relationship among school socioeconomic status, teacher-student relationship, and middle school students’ academic achievement in China: Using the multilevel mediation model. PLoS ONE 14(3): e0213783. google scholar
101. Van der Sijde, P. C. (1989). The effect of a brief teacher training on student achievement. Teaching and Teacher Education, 5(4), 303-314. google scholar
102. Vandenberg, K. C. (2012). Class size and academic achievement. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Georgia Southern University, Amerika. google scholar
103. Vyas, S., & Kumaranayake, L. (2006). Constructing socio-economic status indices: How to use principal components analysis. Health Policy and Planning, 21(6), 459-468. google scholar
104. Yıldırım, Ö. (2012). Okuduğunu anlama başarısıyla ilişkili faktörlerin aşamalı doğrusal modellemeyle belirlenmesi (PISA 2009 Hollanda, Kore ve Türkiye karşılaştırması). Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, Türkiye. google scholar
105. Zhang, D. (2008). The effect of teacher education level, teaching experience, and teaching behaviors on student science achievement. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Utah State Üniversitesi, ABD. google scholar
106. Zuzovsky, R. (2008). Teachers’ qualifications and their impact on student achievement: Findings from TIMSS 2003 data for Israel. Retrieved from https://www.iea.nl/sites/default/files/2019-04/IRC2008_Zuzovsky2.pdf google scholar