Effects of cooking techniques on phenolic content and sensory profiles of cauliflower

Abstract

In this study, the effects of the cooking methods (frying, stir-frying, air-frying, boiling, steaming, baking and sous-vide, and microwaving) on total phenolic content (TPC) and sensory profile of cauliflower have been investigated. Higher cooking temperatures have resulted in higher TPC values, which can be attributed to the generation of new phenolics by the Maillard reaction and cleavage of bound phenolics. The highest TPC and bitterness were obtained when steaming and baking (180°C for 20 min) were applied. While the boiling procedure results in low bitterness and sweetness due to the loss of related compounds in boiling water, the taste of cooked cauliflower was higher when steamed (12 min) and stir-fried (4.5 min). Overall acceptability of the boiled, steamed, and fried samples was higher than in baked and sous-vide treated samples. Steaming was determined as the best technique regarding TPC content and sensory properties.

Keywords

• Cauliflower
• Total phenolics
• Cooking techniques
• Sensory analysis
• Steaming

References

1. Ahmed, F.A. & Ali, R.F.M. (2013). Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Fresh and Processed White Cauliflower. BioMed Research International, 2013, 367819. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/367819
2. Ainsworth, E.A. & Gillespie, K.M. (2007). Estimating total phenolic content and other oxidation substrates in plant tissues using Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. Nature Protocols, 2(4), 875-877. https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2007.102
3. Ali, M.A. (2015). Effect of food processing methods on the bioactive compound of cauliflower. Egyptian Journal of Agricultural Research, 93 (1), 117-131. https://doi.org/10.21608/ejar.2015.152818
4. Alves, G., Lobo, L.A., Domingues, R.M.C.P., Monteiro, M., Perrone, D. (2021). Bioaccessibility and gut metabolism of free and melanoidin-bound phenolic compounds from coffee and bread. Front Nutrition, 8(July), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2021.708928
5. Araszkiewicz, M., Koziol, A., Lupinska, A., Lupinski, M. (2007). Microwave drying of various shape particles suspended in an air stream. Transport Porous Media, 66, 173-186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-006-9013-3
6. Araya, X.I.T., Smale, N., Zabaras, D., Winley, E., Forde, C., Stewart, C.M., Mawson, A.J. (2009). Sensory perception and quality attributes of high-pressure processed carrots in comparison to raw, sous-vide, and cooked carrots. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 10(4), 420-433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2009.04.002
7. Cartea, M.E., Francisco, M., Soengas, P., Velasco, P. (2011). Phenolic compounds in Brassica vegetables. Molecules, 16(1), 251-280. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules16010251
8. Chen, L., McClements, D.J., Yang, T., Ma, Y., Ren, F., Tian, Y., Jin, Z. (2021). Effect of annealing and heat-moisture pretreatments on the oil absorption of normal maize starch during frying. Food Chemistry, 353, 129468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129468

9. Çubukçu, H.C., Kılıçaslan, N.S.D., Durak, I. (2019). Different effects of heating and freezing treatments on the antioxidant properties of broccoli, cauliflower, garlic, and onion. An experimental in vitro study. Sao Paulo Medical Journal, 137(5), 407-413. https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-3180.2019.004406082019
10. Engel, E., Baty, C., Le Corre, D., Souchon, I., Martin, N. (2002). Flavor-active compounds potentially implicated in cooked cauliflower acceptance. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50 (22), 6459-6467. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf025579u
11. FAOSTAT (2021). Crops and livestock products. Cauliflower and broccoli production data. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL (accessed 13.03.2023)
12. Girgin, N., El, S.N. (2015). Effects of cooking on in vitro sinigrin bioaccessibility, total phenols, antioxidant and antimutagenic activity of cauliflower (Brassica oleraceae L. var. Botrytis). Journal of Food Compostion and Analysis, 37, 119-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2014.04.013
13. Gratacós-Cubarsí, M., Ribas-Agustí, A., García-Regueiro, J.A., Castellari, M. (2010). Simultaneous evaluation of intact glucosinolates and phenolic compounds by UPLC-DAD-MS/MS in Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis. Food Chemistry, 121(1), 257-263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.11.081
14. Kubec, R., Drhová, V., Velíšek, J. (1998). Thermal degradation of S-methylcysteine and its sulfoxide important flavor precursors of Brassica and Allium vegetables. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46(10), 4334-4340. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf980379x
15. Lafarga, T., Bobo, G., Viñas, I., Zudaire, L., Simó, J., Aguiló-Aguayo, I. (2018). Steaming and sous-vide: Effects on antioxidant activity, vitamin C, and total phenolic content of Brassica vegetables. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, 13(January), 134-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2018.05.007
16. Maillard, M.N., Soum, M.H., Boivin, P., Berset, C. (1996). Antioxidant activity of barley and malt: Relationship with phenolic content. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 29(3), 238-244. https://doi.org/10.1006/fstl.1996.0035
17. Marcinkowska, M.A., Jeleń, H.H. (2022). Role of sulfur compounds in vegetable and mushroom aroma. Molecules, 27(18), 6116. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27186116
18. Nor, N. D. M., Lignou, S., Bell, L., Houston-Price, C., Harvey, K., Methven, L. (2020). The relationship between glucosinolates and the sensory characteristics of steamed-pureed turnip (Brassica rapa subsp. Rapa L.). Foods, 9(11), 1719. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9111719
19. Poelman, A.A., Delahunty, C.M., de Graaf, C. (2013). Cooking time but not cooking method affects children’s acceptance of Brassica vegetables. Food Quality and Preference, 28 (2), 441-448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2012.12.003
20. Navajas-Porras, B., Pérez-Burillo, S., Hinojosa-Nogueira, D., Pastoriza, S., Rufián-Henares, J.Á. (2022). Relationship of Thermal Treatment and Antioxidant Capacity in Cooked Foods. Antioxidants, 11(12), 2324. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11122324
21. Ramos dos Reis, L.C., Ruffo de Oliveira, V., Hagen, M.E.K., Jablonski, A., Flôres, S.H., Rios, A. (2015). Carotenoids, flavonoids, chlorophylls, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant activity in fresh and cooked broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. Avenger) and cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. Alphina F1). LWT-Food Science and Technology, 63(1), 177-183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.03.089
22. Sahin, S. and Sumnu, S. G. (2006a). Thermal Properties of Foods. In Physical Properties of Foods. Food Science Text Series. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-30808-3_3
23. Sahin, S., Sumnu, S.G. (2006b). Electromagnetic Properties. In Physical Properties of Foods. Food Science Text Series. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-30808-3_4
24. Shahidi, F., Yeo, J.D. (2016). Insoluble-bound phenolics in food. Molecules, 21(9), 1216. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21091216
25. Sharma, K., Ko, E.Y., Assefa, A.D., Ha, S., Nile, S.H., Lee, E.T., Park, S.W. (2015). Temperature-dependent studies on the total phenolics, flavonoids, antioxidant activities, and sugar content in six onion varieties. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, 23(2), 243-252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2014.10.005
26. Turkmen, N., Sari, F., Velioglu, Y.S. (2005). The effect of cooking methods on total phenolics and antioxidant activity of selected green vegetables. Food Chemistry, 93(4), 713-718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.12.038
27. Van Doorn, H.E., Van der Kruk, G.C., van Holst, G.J., Raaijmakers‐Ruijs, N.C., Postma, E., Groeneweg, B., Jongen, W.H. (1998). The glucosinolates sinigrin and progoitrin are important determinants for taste preference and bitterness of Brussels sprouts. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 78(1), 30-38. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(199809)78:1<30::AID-JSFA79>3.0.CO;2-N Van Boekel, M.A.J.S. (2001). Kinetic aspects of the Maillard reaction: a critical review. Molecular Nutrition and Food Research, 45(3), 150-159. https://doi.org/10.1002/1521-3803(20010601)45:3<150::AID-FOOD150>3.0.CO;2-9
28. Wieczorek, M.N., Skrzypczak-Zielinska, M., Walczak, M., Jelen, H.H. (2018). Bitter taste of Brassica vegetables: The role of genetic factors, receptors, isothiocyanates, glucosinolates, and flavor context. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 58(18), 3130-3140. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2017.1353478
29. Wieczorek, M.N., Dunkel, A., Szwengiel, A., Czaczyk, K., Drożdżyńska, A., Zawirska-Wojtasiak, R., Jeleń, H.H. (2022). The relation between phytochemical composition and sensory traits of selected Brassica vegetables. LWT, 156, 113028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.113028