Dyslexia and Working Memory: Understanding Reading Comprehension and High Level Language Skills in Students with Dyslexia

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 29 Sayı: 5, 941 - 952, 31.12.2021

Aydın Kızılaslan Muhammed Tunagür

https://doi.org/10.24106/kefdergi.741028

Cited By: 1

Öz

Dyslexia is defined as difficulties determining speech sounds and learning the relationships of speech sounds with letters and words. Children with learning disabilities may experience problems in attention, memory, perception, motor processing, information processing speed, planning and problem-solving skills. Although lack of phonological processing is considered one of the leading causes of dyslexia, the level of influence of other underlying factors such as cognitive deficits on reading gain is still unclear. Numerous studies have shown that dyslexia is associated with poor working memory, a critical component of reading skill acquisition because the temporary processing of newly introduced and previously stored information involves critical thinking, use of cognitive executive skills, comprehension, and learning tasks. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider their functions distinct in that working memory allows for the manipulation of the information temporarily stored in short-term memory. Working memory, which provides preservation, integration and processing of verbal and visual-spatial information, works together with short-term memory to help the mind manipulate and determine important information while temporary. This study discussed the effects of working memory on reading, reading comprehension, and high-level language skills.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Dyslexia, Workingmemory, Reading comprehension, Languageskills

Dislektik Bireylerde İşleyen Bellek, Okuduğunu Anlama ve Üst Düzey Dil Becerilerin Analizi

Öz

Öğrenme güçlüğünün alt bileşenlerinden olan disleksi (okuma güçlüğü), konuşma seslerini belirleyememe ve bu seslerin harflerle ve kelimelerle ilişkilerini öğrenmeyle (kod çözme) ilgili sorunlar olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Uygun eğitim ortamları, kişisel donanımlar ve zekâ seviyeleri yeterli olmasına karşın dislektik bireyler, okuma becerisini edinmede güçlük yaşar. İşleyen bellek, okuma becerisi ediniminin kritik bileşenlerindedir. Bunun nedeni, yeni tanıtılan ve önceden depolanan verilerin geçici olarak tutulması ve işlenmesindeki rolüdür. Bu roller; eleştirel düşünme, bilişsel yürütme becerilerinin kullanımı, kavrama, yeni bilgi öğrenme ve bellek güncellemeleri şeklinde sıralanabilir. Fonolojik işlemleme eksikliğinin, disleksinin ana nedenlerinden biri olarak kabul edilmesine rağmen bu sorunun altında yatan faktörler ve diğer bilişsel eksikliklerinin okuma kazanımını etkileme düzeyi hala belirsizdir. Çok sayıda çalışma, disleksinin zayıf işleyen bellekle ilişkili olduğunu göstermiştir. Tipik okuma yeteneğine sahip bireylerle karşılaştırıldığında, dislektik bireylerin karmaşık ve zayıf işleyen bellek fonksiyonu sergilediği gözlenmiştir. Bu çalışmada ise işleyen belleğin çalışma prensipleri açıklanarak işleyen belleğin okuma, okuduğunu anlama ve üst düzey dil becerileri üzerinden etkisi incelenerek zayıf işleyen bellek problemi olan yani dislektik öğrencilere yönelik telafi edici müdahalelere değinilmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

disleksi, işleyen bellek, okuduğunu anlama, üst düzey dil becerileri

Kaynakça

• Acheson, D.J., MacDonald, M.C., & Postle, B.R, (2010). The interaction of concreteness and phonological similarity in verbal working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychogy: Learning, Memory and Cognitio 36, 17-36.
• Ackerman, P.T., & Dykman, R.A., (1993). Phonological processes, confrontation naming, and immediate memory in dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26, 597-609.
• Alloway, T.P., Gathercole, S.E., & Pickering, S.J. (2006). Verbal and visuospatial short-term and working memory in children: Are they separable? Child Development, 77, 1698–1716. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00968.x.
• Anita M., Y. Wong, Connie S.H.,Terry K.F., Catherine M.,Ashley K., Lesley P., Catherine, C. (2017). Reading comprehension, working memory and higherlevel language skills in children with SLI and/ or dyslexia. Read Writ, 30, 337–361.
• Alloway, T. P., & Alloway, R. G. (2010). Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic achievement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 106, 20-29.
• Baddeley, A. (2003). Working memory: Looking back and looking forward. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4(10), 829-839. doi: 10.1038/nrn1201
• Baddeley, A. D. (2006). Working memory: An overview. In S. J. Pickering (Ed.), Working memory and education (pp. 1–31). Burlington, MA: Academic Press.
• Balcı, E. (2017). Disleksi hakkında gerçekler: disleksi nedir ve ne değildir? Trakya Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi. 19(1), 1-17.
• Bishop, D.V.M., & Snowling, M.J. (2004). Developmental dyslexia and specific language impairment: Same or different? Psychological Bulletin, 130, 858–888.
• Borowsky, R., Esopenko, C., Cummine, J., & Sarty, G. E. (2007). Neural representations of visual words and objects: a functional MRI study on the modularity of reading and object processing. Brain Topogr. 20, 89–96. doi: 10.1007/s10548-007-0034-1
• Bosse, M. L., & Valdois, S. (2009). Influence of the visual attention span on child reading performance: a cross– sectional study. J. Read. Res. 32, 230–253. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9817.2008.01387.x
• Cain, K., Oakhill, J., & Bryant, P. (2004). Children’s reading comprehension ability: Concurrent prediction by working memory, verbal ability, and component skills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 31–42. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.31.
• Cain, K., Oakhill, J., & Lemmon, K. (2004). Individual differences in the inference of word meanings from context: The influence of reading comprehension, vocabulary knowledge, and memory capacity. Journal Educational Psychology, 96, 671-681
• Catts HW., & Hogan, TP. (2003). Language basis of reading disabilities and implications for early identification and remediation. Reading Psychol, 24, 223-46.
• Chevin, G. (2009). Dyslexia: Visually deaf? Auditory blind?. İngiltere: Author House
• Clair-Thompson, H. L., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006). Executive functions and achievements on national curriculum tests: Shifting, updating, inhibition, and working memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59, 745–759.
• Cortiella, C., & Horowitz, S. H. (2014). The state of learning disabilities: Facts, trends and emerging issues (3. baskı). New York: National Center for Learning Disabilities
• Dahlin, K.I. E. (2011). Effects of working memory training on reading in children with special needs. Reading and Writing, 24, 479-491.
• Dahlin, E., Nyberg, L., Backman, L., & Neely, A. S. (2008). Plasticity of executive functioning in young and older adults: Immediate training gains, transfer, and long-term maintenance. Psychology and Aging, 23, 720–730.
• De Beni, R., Borella, E., & Carretti, B. (2007). Reading comprehension in aging: The role of working memory and metacomprehension. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 14, 189–212.
• De Beni, R., & Palladino, P. (2000). Intrusion errors in working memory tasks: Are they related to reading comprehension ability. Learning and Individual Differences, 12, 131–145.
• Dehaene, S. (2014). Reading in the Brain Revised and Extended: Response to Comments. Mind & Language, 29, 320-335.
• Dehn, M. J. (2011). Helping students remember: Exercises and strategies to strengthen memory. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley
• Dehn, M. J. (2014). Interventions for students with memory difficulties. In J. T. Mascolo, V. C. Alfonso, & D. P. Flanagan (Eds.), Essentials of planning, selecting, and tailoring interventions for unique learners (pp. 357-386). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
• Dunlosky, J., & Kane, M. J. (2007). The contributions of strategy use to working memory span: A comparison of strategy assessment methods. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 1227–1245.
• Elliott, J. G., Gathercole, S. E., Alloway, T.P., Holmes, J., & Kirkwood, H. (2010). An evaluation of a classroom-based intervention to help overcome working memory difficulties and improve long-term academic achievement. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 9(3), 227–250. doi.org/10.1891/1945-8959.9.3.227
• Ericson, B. & Ronnberg, J. (1997). Reading disability and its treatment. EMIR, Report No. 2, Norrkoping: Eve Malmquist Institute for Reading, Linkoping University.
• Fischbach, A., Konen, T., Rietz, C. S, & Hasselhorn, M. (2014). What is not working in working memory of children with literacy disorders? Evidence from a three-year-longitudinal study. Reading Writing, 27, 267-286.
• Gathercole, S. E., & Alloway, T. P. (2008). Working memory and learning: A practical guide for teachers. London, UK: Sage Publishing.
• Gathercole, S. E., & Alloway, T. P. (2004). Working memory and classroom learning. Dyslexia Review, 15, 4–9.
• Gathercole, S. E., Brown, L., & Pickering, S. J. (2003). Working memory assessments at school entry as longitudinal predictors of National Curriculum attainment levels. Educational and Child Psychology, 20, 109–122.
• Gathercole, S. E., Durling, M., Evans, S., Jeffcock, E., & Stone, S. (2008). Working memory abilities and children's performance in laboratory analogues of classroom activities. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22, 1019–1037
• Gill, C. B., Klecan-Aker, J., Roberts, T., & Fredenburg, K. A. (2003). Following directions: Rehearsal and visualization strategies for children with specific language impairment. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 19, 85-104.
• Goff, D. A., Pratt, C., & Ong, B. (2005). The relations between children’s reading comprehension, working memory, language skills and components of reading decoding in a normal sample. Reading and Writing, 18, 583–616.
• Goldstand, S., Koslowe, K. C., & Parush, S. (2005). Vision, visual–information processing, and academic performance among seventh–grade school children: a more significant relationship than we thought? Am. J. Occup. Ther. 59, 377–389. doi: 10.5014/ajot.59.4.377
• Gutierrez-Clellen, V. F., Calderon, J., & Weismer, S. E. (2004). Verbal working memory in bilingual children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47, 863–876.
• Hartsuiker, R. J., & Barkuysen, P. N. (2006). Language production and working memory: The case of subject-verb agreement. Language and Cognitive Processes, 21, 181–204.
• Holmes, J., & Adams, J. W. (2006). Working memory and children's mathematical skills: Implications for mathematical development and mathematics curricula. Educational Psychology, 26, 339–366.
• Holmes, J., Gathercole, S.E., & Dunning, D.L. (2010). Poor Working Memory: Impact and Interventions. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 39(1), 1-43. doi: 10.1016/b978-0-12-374748-8.00001-9
• Høien T., & Lundberg, I. (2000). Dyslexia: From theory to intervention. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer. Academic Publishers. What is dyslexia?
• Hulme, C., & Snowling, M. J. (2011). Children's reading comprehension difficulties: nature, causes, and treatments. Curent Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 139-142.
• Hulme, C. & Snowling, M. J. (2016). Reading disorders and dyslexia. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 28(6), 731–735.
• Hultquist, A. M. (2008). What is dyslexia?: A book explaining dyslexia for kids and adults to use together. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
• Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2007). Expanding retrieval practice promotes short-term retention, but equally spaced retrieval enhances long-term retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33, 704-719.
• Kibby, M. Y., Marks, W., Morgan, S., & Long, C.J. (2004). Specific impairment in developmental reading disabilities: A working memory approach. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37, 349-363. doi.org/10.1177/00222194040370040601
• Kintsch, W., & Kintsch, E. (2005). Comprehension. In S. G. Paris & S. A. Stahl (Eds.), Current issues in reading comprehension and assessment (pp. 71-92). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Klingberg, T. (2009). The overflowing brain: Information overload and the limits of working memory. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Liberman, I.Y. and Shankweiler, D. (1991). Phonology and Beginning Reading. In 1. Rieben & C.A. Perfetti, (Eds.) Learning toread: Bsic Research ditsimplications. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaun Associat es Publishers
• Loosli, S. V., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2012). Working memory training improves reading processes in typically developing children. Child Neuropsychology, 18, 62-78.
• Maehler, C., Joerns, C., & Schuchardt, K. (2019). Training working memory of children with and without dyslexia. Children (Basel), 6(3), 47-57. doi: 10.3390/children6030047
• Malaia, E., Wilbur, R., & Weber-Fox, C. (2009). ERP evidence for telicity effects on syntactic processing in garden-path sentences. Brain and Language 108(3), 145-158.
• Menghini, D., Finzi, A., Carlesimo, G. A., & Vicari, S. (2011). Working memory impairment in children with developmental dyslexia: Is it just a phonological deficit? Developmental Neuropsychology, 36, 199-213.
• Miller, P., & Kupfermann, A. (2009). The role of visual and phonological representations in the processing of written words by readers with diagnosed dyslexia: Evidence from a working memory task. Annals of Dyslexia, 59, 12-33.
• Milton J. D. (2008). Working Memory and Academic Learning: Assessment and Intervention. NewYork: John Wiley and Sons.
• Minear, M., & Shah, P. (2006). Sources of working memory deficits in children and possibilities for remediation. In S. J. Pickering (Ed.), Working memory and education (pp. 273-307). Burlington, MA: Academic Press.
• Montogmery, J., & Evans, J. (2009). Complex sentence comprehension and working memory in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 52, 269–288. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2008/07-0116).
• Mortimore, T. (2008). Dyslexia and Learning Style: A Practitioner’s Handbook. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
• Moser, D. D., Fridriksson, J., & Healy, E. W. (2007). Sentence comprehension and general working memory. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 21, 147–156.
• Murray, E.A., & Wise, S.P. (2004). What, if anything, is the medial temporallobe, and how can the amygdala be part of it if there is no such thing? Neuro-biol. Learn. Mem, 82, 178–198.
• Naya, Y., Yoshida, M., & Miyashita, Y. (2003). Forward processing of long-term associative memory in monkey inferotemporal cortex. J. Neurosci., 23,2861–2871.
• National Reading Styles Institute (NRSI) (2008). Colored Overlays Reduce Dyslexia Quickly and Dramatically. [www.dyslexiacure.com/index.html] Erişim tarihi: 06.05.2020
• Ottem, E., Lian, A., & Karlsen, P. (2007). Reasons for the growth of traditional memory span across age. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 19, 233–270.
• Özmen, R.G. (2017). Öğrenme Güçlüğü Olan Öğrenciler. İ.H. Diken (Ed) Özel Eğitim içinde (ss. 369-401). Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
• Paul, R. (2001) Language Disorders from Infancy through Adolescents: Assessment and Intervention. Elsevıer.
• Purpura, D.J., & Ganley, C.M. (2014). Working memory and language: Skill-specific or domain-general relations to mathematics?. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 122, 104-121. doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2013.12.009
• Randall, M. (2007). Memory, psychology and second language learning. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
• Razon, N. (1980). Okuma Bozuklukları ve Nedenleri, Pedagoji Dergisi, S(1), Edebiyat Fakültesi Basımevi, İstanbul.
• Savage, R., Lavers, N., & Pillay, V. (2007). Working memory and reading difficulties: What we know and what we don’t know about the relationship. Educational Psychology Review 19, 185–221.
• Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia: A new and complete science-based program for reading problems at any level. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
• Shaywitz, S.E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). Dyslexia (Specific reading disability). Language- cognition, 24(5), 147-153
• Silva, M., & Cain, K. (2015). The relations between lower and higher level comprehension skills and their role in prediction of early reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(2), 321–331.
• Skarakis-Doyle, E., & Dempsey, L. (2008). The detection and monitoring of comprehension errors by preschool children with and without language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 51, 1227–1243. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2008/07-0136).
• Smith-Spark, J.H., & Fisk, J.E. (2007). Working memory functioning in developmental dyslexia. Memory, 15(1), 34-56. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210601043384 PMID: 17479923
• Smith-Spark, J. H., Henry, L., Messer, D. J. and Zięcik, A. P. (2017). Verbal and non-verbal fluency in adults with developmental dyslexia: Phonological processing or executive control problems?. Dyslexia, 23(3), pp. 234-250. doi: 10.1002/dys.1558
• Spironelli, C., Penolazzi, B., Vio, C., & Angrilli, A. (2010). Cortical reorganization in dyslexic children after phonological training: evidence from early evoked potentials. Brain, 133(11), 3385-3395. https://doi.org/10.1093/ brain/awq199 PMID: 20688811
• Stein, J. (2014). Dyslexia: the role of vision and visual attention. Curr. Dev. Disord. Rep. 1, 267–280. doi: 10.1007/s40474-014-0030-6
• Swanson, H. L., & Jerman, O. (2007). The influence of working memory on reading growth in subgroups of children with disabilities. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 96, 249–283.
• Swanson, H. L., & Sachse-Lee, C. (2001). Mathematical problem solving and working memory in children with learning disabilities: Both executive and phonological processes are important. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 79, 294–321.
• Turley-Ames, K. J., & Whitfield, M. M. (2003). Strategy training and working memory task performance. Journal of Memory and Language, 49, 446–468.
• Yang, J., Peng, J., Zhang, D., Zheng, L., & Mo, L. (2017). Specific effects of working memory training on the reading skills of Chinese children with developmental dyslexia. PLoS ONE 12(11). doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0186114
• Van der Leij, A., & Morfidi, E. (2006). Core deficits and variable differences in Dutch poor readers learning English. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 74-90. doi.org/10.1177/00222194060390010701
• Wagner, R. K., & Muse, A. (2006). Short-term memory deficits in developmental dyslexia. In T. P. Alloway & S. E. Gathercole (Eds.), Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders (pp. 41-57). New York: Psychology Press.
• Warmington, M., Stothard, S.E., & Snowling, M.J. (2013). Assessing dyslexia in higher education: the York adult assessment battery—revised. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 13(1), 48–56.
• Westerberg, H., & Klingberg, T. (2007). Changes in cortical activity after training of working memory - A single-subject analysis. Physiology & Behavior, 92, 186–192.