Bread Wheat Quality Approaches Based on Human Health

Öz

Wheat plant, which has a history as much as human history, is one of the few foods with increasing strategic importance in the world. In addition to being a major source of starch and energy, whole wheat grain, which contains a number of beneficial ingredients with protein, vitamins (notably B vitamins), dietary fiber, phytochemicals and antioxidant activity, is the most suitable food source created according to human metabolism and needs. The portrayal of hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) refined products developed after the green revolution as the cause of diseases such as diabetes, digestive system and obesity has caused public concern and as a result, the demand for gluten-free products has increased. Although there has been an increase in genetic progression rates in terms of gluten content and strength in varieties developed in recent years, the biological basis of gluten-induced symptoms has not been adequately explained, and the claims that gluten triggers non-celiac gluten sensitivity symptoms are not clear. On the other hand, the association of whole wheat consumption with the reduction in the risk of developing chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease risk, type-II diabetes and some types of cancer has led researchers to determine health-based quality characteristics in parallel with the serious demand in the society. Nowadays, variety richness developed in accordance with the specified quality characteristics of refined flours for obtaining coarse volume bread can meet the production needs. However, it is understood that the quality characteristics determined for refinery flours in which storage proteins play a decisive role will be insufficient to respond to the need in studies aimed at determining the quality of whole wheat flours, including shell/bran (13-17%) and embryo (2-3%). Therefore, determining the quality characteristics of whole wheat and its products and developing appropriate processing technologies will facilitate the breeders to determine the appropriate variety. In addition to high grain yield, it is possible to develop purpose-based genotypes in bread wheat, which has a wide variation in terms of nutrients and bioactive components required for healthy nutrition of people.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Bread wheat
• Gluten
• health
• quality breeding
• whole wheat

İnsan Sağlığı Esaslı Ekmeklik Buğday Kalite Yaklaşımları

Öz

İnsanlık tarihi kadar bir geçmişi olan buğday bitkisi, dünyada talebi artan stratejik öneme sahip sayılı gıdaların başında gelmektedir. Nişasta ve enerji kaynağı olmanın yanı sıra sağlık için gerekli protein, vitaminler, diyet lifi, fitokimyasallar ve antioksidan aktivitesi ile faydalı bir dizi bileşen muhtevasına sahip tam buğday danesi, insan metabolizması ve ihtiyacına göre yaratılmış en uygun gıda kaynağıdır. Yeşil devrim sonrası geliştirilen hexaploid buğday (Triticum aestivum L.) rafine edilmiş ürünlerinin diyabet, sindirim sistemi ve obezite gibi hastalıkların sebebi olarak gösterilmesi, kamuoyunda endişelere sebep olmuş bunun sonucu glutensiz ürünlere olan rağbet de artmıştır. Son yıllarda gelişitirilen çeşitlerde gluten oranı ve güçlülüğü bakımından genetik ilerleme oranlarında artış kaydedilmekle birlikte gluten ile indüklenen semptomların biyolojik esası yeterince izah edilememiş olup, glutenin çölyak dışı gluten hassasiyeti semptomlarını tetiklediği iddiaları da açık ve net değildir. Öte yandan tam buğday tüketiminin kardiyovasküler hastalık riski, tip-II diyabet ve bazı kanser türlerine yakalanma gibi kronik hastalıklarin gelişme riskindeki azalmayla ilişkilendirilmesi, toplumda ciddi talep oluşmasına paralel araştırıcıları da sağlık esaslı kalite özelliklerini belirlemeye itmiştir. Günümüzde kaba hacimli ekmek elde etmeye yönelik rafine unlarına ait belirlenmiş kalite özellikleri ile buna uygun geliştirilen çeşit zenginliği üretimin ihtiyacını karşılayabilmektedir. Ancak depo proteinlerinin belirleyici rol aldığı rafineri unlar için belirlenen kalite özelliklerinin kabuk/kepek (%13-17) ve embriyo (%2-3) kısmının dâhil edildiği tam buğday unlarının kalitelerinin belirlenmesine yönelik çalışmalarda ihtiyaca cevap vermede yetersiz kalacağı anlaşılmaktadır. Bu sebeple tam buğday ve mamüllerine ait kalite özelliklerinin belirlenmesi ile uygun işleme teknolojilerinin geliştirilmesi, uygun çeşit belirlemeye esas çalışmalarda ıslahçılara kolaylık sağlayacaktır. Yüksek tane verimine ek olarak insan sağlığına esas faydalı unsurların içerik ve kompozisyonları bakımından geniş bir varyasyona sahip ekmeklik buğdaylarda amaca uygun genotiplerin geliştirilmesi mümkündür.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Ekmeklik buğday
• gluten
• kalite ıslahı
• sağlık
• tam buğday

Kaynakça

1. Braun H.J, Atlin G, Payne T. Multi-location testing as a tool to identify plant response to global climate change. In: Reynolds MP, editor. Climate change and crop production. Wallingford (UK): CABI Publishers, 2010.
2. Tadesse W., Sanchez-Garcia M., Gizaw Assefa S., Amri A., Bishaw Z., Ogbonnaya FC., Baum M. Genetic Gains in Wheat Breeding and Its Role in Feeding the World. Crop Breed Genetics Genomics, 1 1-28, 2019.
3. TMO. Toprak mahsulleri ofisi Genel müdürlüğü 2019 yılı hububat sektör raporu Ankara, http://www.tmo.gov.tr/Upload/Document/sektorraporlari/hububat2019.pdf. (Erişim Tarihi:23.09.2020).
4. Shahbandeh M., Per capita food use of wheat worldwide 2000-2019, https://www.statista.com/statistics/237890/global-wheat-per-capita-food-use-since-2000. (Erişim Tarihi:23.09.2020).
5. OECD FAO 2018. Cereals. Agricultural Outlook 2018-2027, 2018. http://www.agri-outlook.org/commodities/Agricultural-Outlook-2018-Cereals.pdf. (Erişim Tarihi: 23.09.2020).
6. Delcour J.A., Joye I.J., Pareyt B., Wilderjans E., Brijs K., Lagrain B. Wheat gluten functionality as a quality determinant in cereal-based food products. Ann Rev Food Sci Technol, 3:1 469-492, 2012.
7. Wrigley C.W. Wheat: a unique grain for the world. See Khan Shewry 2009, p. 1-17, 2009.
8. Delcour J.A, Hoseney R.C. Principles of Cereal Science and Technology. St. Paul, MN: AACC Int. p. 270, 2010.

9. Huebner F.R., Bietz J.A., Nelsen T., Bains G.S, Finney P.L. Soft wheat quality as related to protein com-position.Cereal Chem, 76 650-555, 1999.
10. Keçeli A. Turkish Journal of Agriculture-Food Science and Technology. Turkish Journal of Agriculture-Food Science and Technology, 7:12 2111-2120, 2019.
11. Elgün, A., Ertugay, Z. Tahıl İşleme Teknolojisi, Atatürk Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları, Erzurum, No:718, s. 376, 1995.
12. Anonim. Türkiye Beslenme ve Sağlık Araştırması 2010: Beslenme Durumu ve Alışkanlıklarının Değerlendirilmesi Sonuç Raporu. Sağlık Bakanlığı, https://hsgm.saglik.gov.tr/depo/birimler/saglikli-beslenme-hareketli-hayat-db/Yayinlar/kitaplar/diger-kitaplar/TBSA-Beslenme-Yayini.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 27.11.2020).
13. Kılıç H. Kur'an Işığında Tahıl Bitkileri. International Creation Congress on the light of sciences.30 November-2 December 2017 Şanlıurfa Turkey .(Edit: Akan H., Erdoğan O., Küfrevioğlu İ.) International Creation Congress on The Light of Sciences Proceedings 30th November-2nd December 2107. Harran Üniv. Şanlıurfa 2018.
14. Kılıç H. Tahılların Başağında Saklanması. II. Uluslararası Bilimler Işığında Yaratılış Kongresi (8-9 Kasım 2018 Atatürk Üniversitesi Erzurum) s. 383-392, 2018.
15. Koning F. Adverse Effects of Wheat Gluten. Ann Nutr Metab, 67:2 7-14, 2015.
16. Davis W.R. Wheat Belly: Lose the Wheat, Lose the Weight, and Find Your Path Back to Health. https://www.amazon.com/Wheat-Belly-Lose-Weight-Health-ebook/dp/B00571F26Y, (Erişim Tarihi 14.02.2021).
17. You W., Henneberg M. Cereal Crops Are not Created Equal: Wheat Consumption Associated with Obesity Prevalence Globally and Regionally AIMS Public Health, 3:2 313-328, 2016.
18. Abadie V., Sollid L.M., Barreiro L.B., Jabri B. Integration of genetic and immunological insights into a model of celiac disease pathogenesis. Ann. Rev. Immunol. 29, 493-525, 2011.
19. Karell K., Louka A.S., Moodien S.J., Ascher H., Clot F., Greco L., Ciclitira P.J., Sollid L.M. an Partanen J. HLA types in celiac disease patients not carrying the DQA1*05-DQB1*02 (DQ2) heterodimer: results from the European Genetics Cluster on celiac disease. Hum. Immunol., 64 469-477, 2003.
20. Volta U, Caio G, Tovoli F, De Giorgio R. Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: questions still to be answered despite increasing awareness. Cell Mol Immunol., 10 383-92, 2013.
21. Venter C., Maslin K., Arshad S.H., Patil V., Grundy, J., Glasbey G., Twiselton R., Dean T. Very low prevalence of IgE mediated wheat allergy and high levels of cross-sensitisation between grass and wheat in a UK birth cohort. Clin Transl Allergy, 6:1 1-7, 2016.
22. Brouns F.J., van Buul V.J., Shewry P.R. Does wheat make us fat and sick? Journal of Cereal Science, 58:2 209-215, 2013.
23. Hauner H., Bechthold A., Boeing H., Brönstrup A., Buyken A., Leschik-Bonnet E. Evidence-Based Guideline of the German Nutrition Society: Carbohydrate Intake and Prevention of Nutrition-Related Diseases. Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift (1946), 137:8 389-393, 2012.
24. Kucek L.K., Veenstra L.D., Amnuaycheewa P., Sorrells M.A. Grounded Guide to Gluten: How Modern Genotypes and Processing Impact Wheat Sensitivity. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 14 285-302, 2015.
25. Kim H.S., Patel K.G., Orosz E., Kothari N.F., Demyen M., Pyrsopoulos N.K., Ahlawat S. Time trends in the prevalence of celiac disease and gluten-free diet in the us population: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys 2009-2014. JAMA Intern Med, 176 1716-1717, 2016.
26. Reilly N.R. The gluten-free diet: recognizing fact, fiction and fad. J Pediatr., 175 206-210, 2016.
27. Biesiekierski J.R., Peters S.L., Newnham E.D., Rosella O., Muir J.G., Gibson P.R. No effects of gluten in patients with self-reported non-celiac gluten sensitivity after dietary reduction of fermentable, poorly absorbed, short-chain carbohydrates. Gastroenterology, 145 320-328, 2013.
28. Niland B., Brooks D.C., Health Benefits and Adverse Effects of a Gluten-Free Diet in Non-Celiac Disease Patients Gastroenterol Hepatol., 14:2 82-91, 2018.
29. Wünsche J., Lambert C., Gola U., Biesalski H.K. Consumption of gluten free products increases heavy metal intake. NFS Journal, 12 11-15, 2018.
30. Zong G., Lebwohl B., Hu F.B., Sampson L., Dougherty L.V., Willett W.C., Chan A.T., Sun Q.I. Gluten intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in three large prospective cohort studies of US men and women. Diabetologia, 61 2164-2173, 2018.
31. Liu S., Stampfer M.J., Hu F.B., Giovannucci E., Rimm E., Manson J.E., Hennekens C.H., Willett W.C. Whole-grain consumption and risk of coronary heart disease: results from the Nurses’ Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr., 70 412-419, 1999.
32. Johnsen, N.F., Frederiksen K., Christensen J. Whole-grain products and whole-grain types are associated with lower all-cause and cause-specific mortality in the Scandinavian HELGA cohort. British Journal of Nutrition, 114:4 608-623, 2015.
33. Slavin J.L., Martini M.C., Jacobs D.R., Marquart L. Plausible mechanisms for the protectiveness of whole grains. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 70:3 459-463, 1999.
34. McRae M.P. Health Benefits of Dietary Whole Grains: An Umbrella Review of Meta-analyses J Chiropr Med., 16:1 0-18, 2017.
35. Dubois B., Bertin P., Mingeot D. Molecular diversity of alpha-gliadin expressed genes in genetically contrasted spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) accessions and comparison with bread wheat (T. Aestivum ssp. aestivum) and related diploid Triticum and Aegilops species. Molecular Breeding, 36:11 1-15, 2016.
36. Dubois B., Bertin P., Hautier L., Muhovski Y., Escarnot E., Mingeot D. Genetic and environmental factors a_ecting the expression of alpha-gliadin canonical epitopes involved in celiac disease in a wide collection of spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) cultivars and landraces. BMC Plant Biol. 18, 262, 2018.
37. Escarnot E., Goot S., Sinnaeve G., Dubois B., Bertin P., Mingeot D. Reactivity of gluten proteins from spelt and bread wheat accessions towards A1 and G12 antibodies in the framework of celiac disease. Food Chem. 268 522-532, 2018.
38. Malalgoda M., Ohm J.B., Simsek Ş. Celiac antigenicity of ancient wheat species. Foods, 8:12 675, 2019.
39. Rajaram S., Borlaug N.E., Van Ginkel M. CIMMYT international wheat breeding. In: Curtis BC, Rajaram S, Gomez Macpherson H, editors. Bread Wheat Improvement and Production. FAO, Rome, p. 103-117, 2002.
40. Shaw L.M., Turner A.S., Laurie D.A. Impact of photoperiod insensitive Ppd‐1a mutations on the photoperiod pathway across the three genomes of hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum). The Plant Journal, 71:1 71-84, 2012.
41. Ausemus E.R., Reitz L.P. Hard red spring and durum wheats: culture and varieties. USDA Agric Info Bul No 249. US Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C, 1962.
42. Liu D., Zhang L., Hao M., Ning S., Yuan Z., Dai S. Wheat breeding in the hometown of Chinese Spring. The crop Journal, 6 82-90, 2018.
43. Borlaug, N.E. Wheat breeding and its impact on world food supply. In K.W. Finlay K.W. Shephard, eds. Proceedings of the 3rd International Wheat Genetics Symposium, p. 1-36. Canberra, Australia, Australian Academy of Sciences, 1968.
44. Hoogendoorn, J., Pfeiffer, W.H., Rajaram, S., Gale, M.D. Adaptive aspects of dwarfing genes in CIMMYT germplasm. In T.E. Miller R.M.D Koebner, eds. Proceedings of the 7th International Wheat Genetics Symposium, p. 1093-1100. Cambridge, UK, 1988.
45. Li A., Liu D., Yang W., Kishii M., Mao L. Synthetic Hexaploid Wheat: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow. Engineering, 4 552-558, 2018.
46. CIMMYT. Extensive use of wild grass-derived “synthetic hexaploid wheat” adds diversity and resilience to modern bread wheat, 2019. https://www.cimmyt.org/news/extensive-use-of-wild-grass-derived-synthetic-hexaploid-wheat-adds-diversity-and-resilience-to-modern-bread-wheat (Erişim Tarihi:02.12.2020).
47. Aktaş H., Karaman M., Erdemci İ., Kendal E., Tekdal S., Kılıç K., Oral E. Sentetik ve Modern Ekmeklik Buğday Genotiplerinin (Triticum aestivum L.) Verim ve Kalite Özelliklerinin Karşılaştırılması. Uluslararası Tarım ve Yaban Hayatı Bilimleri Dergisi, 3:1 25-32, 2017.
48. Calderini D.F., Ortiz-Monasterio I. Grain position affects grain macronutrient and micronutrient concentrations in wheat. Crop Sci., 43:1 141-51, 2003
49. Kempe K., Rubtsova M., Gils M. Split-gene system for hybrid wheat seed production. Proc Natl Acad Sci., 111 9097-9102, 2014.
50. Gowda M., Longin C.F.H., Lein V., Reif J.C. Relevance of specific versus general combining ability in winter wheat. Crop Sci., 52 2494-2500, 2012.
51. Longin C.F.H., Gowda M., Mühleisen J., Ebmeyer E., Kazman E., Schachschneider R., Schacht J., Kirchhoff M., Zhao Y., Reif J.C. Hybrid wheat: quantitative genetic parameters and consequences for the design of breeding programs. Theor Appl Genet., 126 2791-2801, 2013.
52. Tian B., Talukder S.K., Fu J., Fritz AK. Trick H.N. Expression of a rice soluble starch synthase gene in transgenic wheat improves the grain yield under heat stress conditions. In Vitro Cellular Developmental Biology-Plant, 54:3 216-227, 2018.
53. Weichert N., Saalbach I., Weichert H., Kohl S., Erban A., Kopka J., Hause B., Varshney A., Sreenivasulu N., Strickert M., Kumlehn J., Weschke W., Weber H. Increasing sucrose uptake capacity of wheat grains stimulates storage protein synthesis, Plant Physiology, 152:2 698-710, 2010.
54. Li S., Wang N., Wang Y., Fang J., He G. Inheritance and expression of copies of transgenes 1Dx5 and 1Ax1 in elite wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties transferredfrom transgenic wheat through conventional crossing, Acta Biochimica et Biophysica Sinica, 39:5 377-383, 2007.
55. Mao M., Li Y., Zhao S., Zhang J., Lei Q., Meng D., Ma F., Hu W., Chen M., Chang J., Wang Y., Yang G. He G. The interactive efects of transgenically overexpressed 1Ax1 with various HMW-GS combinations on dough quality by introgression of exogenous subunits into an elite Chinese wheat variety, PLoS One, 8:10 e78451, 2013.
56. Morgounov A.I., Belan I., Zelenskiy Y., Roseeva L., Tomoskozi S., Bekes F., Abugalieva A., Cakmak İ., Vargas M. Crossa J. Historical changes in grain yield and quality of spring wheat varieties cultivated in Siberia from 1900 to 2010, Can. J. Plant Sci., 93:3 425-433, 2013.
57. Bornhofen E., Benin G., Storck L., Marchioro V.S., Meneguzzi C., Milioli A.S., Trevizan D.M. Environmental effect on genetic gains and its impact on bread-making quality traits in Brazilian Spring Wheat Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research, 77:1 27-34, 2017.
58. Nehe A., Akin B., Sanal T., Evlice A., Ünsal R., Demir L., Geren H., Sevim İ., Orhan Ş., Yaktubay S., Ezici A., Guzman C., Morgounov A. Genotype x environment interaction and genetic gain for grain yield and grain quality traits in Turkish spring wheat released between 1964 and 2010. Plos One, 14:7 e0219432, 2019.
59. Karagöz A., Wheat landraces of Turkey. Emir. J. Food Agric.. 26 149-156, 2014.
60. Davis K.R., Cain R.F., Peters L.J., Le Tourneau D., McGinnis J. Evaluation of the nutrient composition of wheat. II. proximate analysis, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and pyridoxine. Cereal Chem., 58 116-20, 1981.
61. Wadhawan C.K, Bushuk W. Studies on vitality of commercial gluten. II. Solubility fractionation, electrophoresis, and flourescence results. Cereal Chem., 66 461-466, 1989.
62. Wieser H., Seilmeier W. The influence of nitrogen fertilisation on quantities and proportions of different protein types in wheat flour. J Sci Food Agric., 76 49-55, 1998.
63. Posner E.S. Wheat. In: Kulp K, Ponte JG, editors. Handbook of cereal science and technology. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc. P. 1–29, 2000.
64. Gafurova D.A., Tursunkhodzhaev P.M., Kasymova T.D., Yuldashev P.K. Factional and amino-acid composition of wheat grain cultivated in Uzbekistan. Chem Nat Compd., 38 377-379, 2002.
65. Huynhand B.L., Palmer L., Mather D.E., Wallwork H., Graham R.D., Welch R.M., Stangoulis J.C.R. Genotypic variation in wheat grain fructan contentrevealed by a simplified HPLC method. J Cereal Sci., 48 369-378, 2008.
66. Özdemir S. Glutenin Fraksiyonunun Elektroforetik Özellikleri Üzerine Un Randımanı ve Yoğurma Sıcaklığının Etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Uludağ Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Gıda Mühendisliği Anabilim Dalı, s. 55, 2007.
67. Dizlek H. Buğdaydaki Gluten Proteinleri: Gliadin. Akademik Gıda, 10:2 109-114, 2012.
68. Žilić S. Wheat Gluten: Composition And Health Effects In: Gluten. Edit: Dane B. Walter. Chapter IV. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 2013.
69. Payne P.I., Holt L.M., Jackson E.A., Law C.N. Wheat storage proteins: Their genetics and their potential for manipulation by plant breeding. Philosophıcal Transactıons Biological Sciences, 304:1120 359-371, 1984.
70. Kaya Y., Akçura M. Effects of genotype and environment on grain yield and quality traits in bread wheat (T. aestivum L.) Food Sci. Technol. Campinas, 34:2 386-393, 2014.
71. Kılıç H., Sanal T., Erdemci İ. Karaca K. Screening Bread Wheat Genotypes for High Molecular Weight Glutenin Subunits and Some Quality Parameters. Journal Agriculture Science Techonologies, 19 1393-1404, 2017.
72. Aktaş H., Şener O. Effect of hmw and lmw glutenin alleles on quality traits of bread wheat Genetika, 52:1 257-271, 2020.
73. Molberg Q., Uhlen A.K., Jensen T., Flæte N.S., Fleckenstein B., Arentz-Hansen H., Raki M., Lundin K.E., Sollid L.M. Mapping of gluten T‐cell epitopes in the bread wheat ancestors: implications for celiac disease. Gastroenterology,128 393-401, 2005.
74. Spaenij‐Dekking L., Kooy‐Winkelaar Y., van Veelen P., Drijfhout J.W., Jonker H., van Soest L., Smulders M.J.M., Bosch D., Gilissen L.J.W.J., Koning F. Natural variation in toxicity of wheat: potential for selection of nontoxic varieties for celiac disease patients. Gastroenterology, 129 797-806, 2005.
75. Van Herpen T.W.J.M., Goryunova S.V., Van der Schoot J., Mitreva M., Salentijn E., Vorst O., Schenk M.F., van Veelen P.A., Koning F., van Soest L.J.M. Alpha‐gliadin genes from the A, B, and D genomes of wheat contain different sets of celiac disease epitopes. BMC Genomics, 7:1 1-13, 2006.
76. Pizzuti D., Buda A., D’Odorico A., D’Inca R., Chiarelli S., Curioni A., Martines D. Lack of intestinal mucosal toxicity of Triticum monococcum in celiac disease patients. Scand. J. Gastroenterol, 41 1305-1311, 2006.
77. Shewry P.R., Hey S.J. The contribution of wheat to human diet and health Food and Energy Security, 4:3 178-202, 2015.
78. Shewry P.R., Hey S. Do “ancient” wheat species differ from modern bread wheat in their contents of bioactive components Journal of Cereal Science, 65 236-243, 2015.
79. Zanini B., Villanacci V., De Leo L., Lanzini A. Triticum monococcum in patients with celiac disease: A phase II open study on safety of prolonged daily administration. Eur. J. Nutr., 54 1027-1029, 2015.
80. Fasano A. Zonulin and Its Regulation of Intestinal Barrier Function: The Biological Door to Inflammation, Autoimmunity, and Cancer Physiol Rev., 91 151-175, 2011.
81. Fasano A. Zonulin, regulation of tight junctions, and autoimmune diseases Ann N Y Acad Sci., 1258:1 25-33, 2012.
82. Drago S., El Asmar R., Di Pierro M., Clemente M.G., Tripathi A., Sapone A., Thakar M., Iacono G., Carroccio A., D'Agate C., Not T., Zampini L., Catassi C., Fasano A. Gliadin, zonulin and gut permeability: Effects on celiac and non-celiac intestinal mucosa and intestinal cell lines Gastroenterol, 41:4 408-19, 2006.
83. Lammers K.M., Lu R., Brownley J., Lu B., Gerard C., Thomas K., Rallabhandi P., Shea-Donohue T., Tamiz A., Alkan Ş., Netzel-Arnett S., Antalis T., Vogel S.N., Fasano A. Gliadin induces an increase in intestinal permeability and zonulin release by binding to the chemokine receptor CXCR3. Gastroenterology, 135:1 194-204, 2008.
84. Hollon J., Puppa E.L., Greenwald B., Goldberg E., Guerrerio A., Fasano A. Effect of gliadin on permeability of intestinal biopsy explants from celiac disease patients and patients with non-celiac gluten sensitivity Controlled Clinical Trial Nutrients, 7:3 1565-1576, 2015.
85. Sander G.Y., Cummins A.G., Henshall T., Powell B.C. Rapid disruption of intestinal barrier function by gliadin involves altered expression of apical junctional proteins chemokine receptor CXCR3. Gastroenterology, 135:1 194-204, 2008.
86. Biesiekierski J.R., Newnham E.D., Irving P.M., Barrett J.S., Haines M., Doecke J.D., Shepherd S.J., Muir J.G., Gibson P.R. Gluten causes gastrointestinal symptoms in subjects without celiac disease: a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial. Am J Gastroenterol, 106:3 508-514, 2011.
87. Hajifaraji M., Rezvani V., Yaghoobi A.S., Morteza H., Madda M. Glycemic indices of three commonly consumed foods: a clinicaltrial in Iranian healthy adults Mediterr J Nutr Metab., 1:1 3-7, 2008.
88. Ridner E., Di Sibio A. Glycemic index of two varieties of pasta and two varieties of rice Arch Latinoam Nutr Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición, 65:2 79-85, 2015.
89. Modu S., Laila A., Zainab A.M., Bintu B.P. Studies on the glycemic response of wheat at various level of processing fed to normal healthy rats, Biochemistry, 23:2 63-71, 2011.
90. Ergün R. Türkiye’ye özgü bazı ekmek türlerinin glisemik indeks değerlerinin saptanması. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü Beslenme Bilimleri Progra mı Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara, 2014.
91. Joubert S. Glycemic index and glycemic load for 100+ foods August 22, 2017 By Your Side Ltd https://byyoursidehomecare.co.uk/glycemic-index-glycemic-load-100-foods/ (Erişim Tarihi:17.02.2021).
92. Nylund L., Kaukinen K., Lindfors K. The microbiota as a component of the celiac disease and non-celiac gluten sensitivity. Clinical Nutrition Experimental, 6 17-24, 2016.
93. Bektaş A., ÖzeL M. Gluten: Dost mu, Düşman mı? Güncel Gastroenteroloji, 22:2 127-134, 2018.
94. Muir J. Is a carbohydrate called fructan giving gluten a bad rap? Monash Univ.2019 https://lens.monash.edu/@health-sciences/2019/ 08/01/1375992/gut-feeling-is-a-carbohydrate-called-fructan-giving-gluten-a-bad-rap-1, (Erişim Tarihi 17.02.2021).
95. Payne P.I. Genetics of wheat storage proteins and the effect of allelic variation on bread‐making quality. Annu Rev Plant Physiol., 38:1 141-53, 1987.
96. Metakovsky E.V., Knezevic D., Javornik B. Gliadin allele composition of Yugoslav winter wheat cultivars. Euphytica, 54:3 285-295, 1991.
97. Salentijn E.M., Esselink D.G., Goryunova S.V., van der Meer I.M., Gilissen L.J.W.J., Smulders M.J.M. Quantitative and qualitative differences in celiac disease epitopes among durum wheat varieties identified through deep RNA‐amplicon sequencing. BMC Genomics, 14:1 1-16, 2013.
98. Nakamura A., Tanabe S., Watanabe J., Makino T., Station A.E., April R. Primary screening of relatively less allergenic wheat carieties. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol, 51 204-216, 2005.
99. Bressiani J., Oro T., Santetti G.S., Almeida J.L., Bertolin T.E., Gomez M., Gutkosk L.C. Properties of whole grain wheatflour and performance in bakeryproducts as a function of particle size Journal of Cereal Science, 75 269-277, 2017.
100. Thompson L.U. Potential health benefits of whole grains and their components. Contemporary Nutrition, 17 1-2, 1992.
101. Liu R.H. Whole grain phytochemicals and health Journal of Cereal Science, 46:3 207-219, 2007.
102. Lafiandra D., Riccardi G., Shewryc P.R. Improving cereal grain carbohydrates for diet and health. J Cereal Sci., 59 312-26, 2014.
103. Zong G., Gao A., Hu F.B., Sun Q. Whole grain intake and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease,and cancer: A meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Circulation, 133, 2370-2380, 2016.
104. Benisi-Kohansal, S., Saneei P., Salehi-Marzijarani M., Larijani B., Esmaillzadeh A. Whole-grain intakeand mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: A systematic review and dose-responsemeta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Adv. Nutr., 16:7 1052-1065, 2016.
105. Kaur K.D., Jha A., Sabikhi L., Singh A.K. Significance of coarse cereals in health and nutrition: a review. J Food Sci Technol., 51 1429-41, 2014
106. Slavin J. Whole grains and human health Nutrition Research Reviews, 17:1 99-110, 2004.
107. Hadjivassiliou M., Grunewald R.A., Sharrack B., Sanders D., Lobo A., Williamson C., Woodroofe N., Wood N., Davies-Jones A. Gluten ataxia in perspective: epidemiology, genetic susceptibility and clinical characteristics, Brain, 126 685-69, 2013.
108. Mizrak G. Glisemik indeks, glisemik yük, sağlıklı beslenme ve spor. Ziraat mühendisliği. Aralık, 363, 2016.
109. Murtaugh M.A., Jacobs D.R., Jacob B., Steffen L.M., Marquart L. Epidemiological support for the protection of whole grains against diabetes, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 62 143-149, 2003.
110. Kyro C., Tjonneland A. Whole grains and public health. BMJ., 353 i3046, 2016.
111. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2015. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans 8th Edition, 2016. http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/ (Erişim Tarihi: 17 Ocak 20201).
112. Gaesser G.A. Whole Grains, Refined Grains, and Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review of Meta-Analyses of Observational Studies Nutrients, 12:12 3756, 2020.
113. Taşçı R., Karabak S., Bolat M., Pehlivan A., Şanal T., Acar O., Külen S., Güneş E., Albayrak M. Ankara İlinde Ekmek Fırınlarının Üretim Yapısı ve Ekmek İsrafı TEAD, 3:1 1-16, 2017.
114. Lai C.S., Hoseney R.C., Davis A.B. Effects of wheat bran in breadmaking. Cereal Chem., 66:3 217-219, 1989.
115. Noort M.W.J., Haaster D., Hemery Y., Schols H.A., Hamer R.J. The effect of particle size of wheat bran fractions on bread quality: Evidence for fibre-protein interactions. J. Cereal Sci., 52 59-64, 2010.
116. Gomez M., Gutkoski L.C., Núñe A.B. Understanding whole-wheat flour and its effect in breads: review Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf., 19 3241-3265, 2020.
117. McGuire C.F., O’Palka J. Sensory evaluation of a hard white compared to a hard red winter wheat. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 67:1 129-133, 1995.
118. Talbert L.E., Hofer P., Nash D., Martin J.M., Lanning S.P., Sherman J.D., Giroux M.J. Hard white versus hard red wheats: Taste tests and milling and baking properties. Cereal Chemistry, 90:9 249-255, 2013.
119. Watts B., Ryland D., Malcolmson L.J., Ambalamaatil S., Adams K.M., Lukow O.M. Flavor properties of pan and pita breads made from red and white hard spring wheats. Journal of Food Quality, 35:1 60-68, 2012.
120. Challacombe C.A., Seetharaman K., Duizer, L.M. Sensory characteristics and consumer acceptance of bread and cracker products made from red or white wheat. Journal of Food Science, 76:5 37-46, 2011.
121. Gomez M., González J., Oliete B. Effect of extruded wheat germ on dough rheology and bread quality. Food and Biopro-cess Technology, 5:6 2409-2418, 2012.
122. Nik M.M., Babaeian M., Tavassoli A. Effect of seed and embryo size on early growth of wheat genotypes African Journal of Microbiology Research, 5:27 4859-4865, 2011.
123. Hocaoğlu O., Akçura M., Kaplan M. Changes in the Grain Element Contents of Durum Wheat Varieties of Turkey Registered between 1967-2010. Journal Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 51:4 431-439, 2020.
124. Monasterio I., Graham R.D. Breeding for trace minerals in wheat. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 21:4 392-396, 2000.
125. Vignola M.B., Moiraghi M., Salvucci E., Baroni V., Pérez G.T. Whole meal and white flour from Argentine wheat genotypes: Mineral and arabinoxylan differences.Journal of Cereal Science, 71 217-223, 2016.
126. Akçura M., Hocaoğlu O., Kılıç H., Kökten K. Karadeniz Bölgesine Ait Yerel Ekmeklik Buğday Hatlarının Tanedeki Besin Elementleri İçerikleri Yönünden Tescilli Ekmeklik Buğday Çeşitleri İle Karşılaştırılması. Türkiye X. Tarla Bitkileri Kongresi, 2013.
127. Li Y., Ma D., Sun D., Wang C., Zhang J., Xie Y., Guo T. Total phenolic, flavonoid content, and antioxidantactivity of flour, noodles, and steamed bread made fromdifferent colored wheat grains by three milling methods The Crop Journal, 3 328-334, 2015.
128. Mulero M.C., Barros L., Fernandes A., Ferreira I., Callejo J., González M., Ruiz V.F., Morales P., Carrillo J.M. Potential Health Claims of Durum and Bread Wheat Flours as Functional Ingredients Nutrients, 12:2 504, 2020.
129. Selimoğlu E., Bektaş Y., Özkocak V., Gültekin T. Beslenme Şeklinin Zaman İçindeki Tarihsel Yolculuğu. SETSCI Conference Indexing System, 3 390-398, 2018.
130. TGK. Türk Gıda Kodeksi Ekmek ve Ekmek Çeşitleri Tebliği Resmi Gazete: 04.01.2012 tarih ve 28163 sayılı Tebliğ No: 2012/2, 2012.