Tersine Göç Eğiliminin Akademik Diasporanın Verimliliği Üzerindeki Etkisi: Almanya Örneği

Öz

Akademik diasporaların bilgi yaratım ve beşeri sermaye stoku artırım sürecinde hem bulundukları ülkelerde hem de anavatanları üzerinde etkileri söz konusudur. Bu çalışmada Türk Diasporasındaki akademisyenlerin tersine göç eğilimlerinin akademik verimlilikleri üzerindeki etkisi incelemektedir. Çalışmada, Almanya’daki üniversite ve araştırma merkezlerinde çalışan 466 Türk akademisyenden elde edilen veriler Probit Regresyon aracılığı ile analiz edilmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlara göre, Diasporadaki bilim insanlarının fiziksel göç eğilimlerinin akademik verimlilikleri üzerinde anlamlı bir etkisi söz konusu değilken, fikirsel anlamda tersine göç eğilimi akademik verimliliği pozitif anlamda etkilemektedir. Buna göre diasporadaki bilim insanlarının fikirsel anlamda tersine göç eğilimi akademik verimliliklerini %0.12 oranında arttırmaktadır. Ayrıca akademik diasporanın uluslararası akademik bağlantılarının da akademik verimliliği pozitif etkilediği sonucuna ulaşılmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Bilimsel diaspora
• Beşeri sermaye
• Verimlilik
• Tersine beyin göçü

The Effect of Reverse Migration Tendency on the Productivity of Academic Diaspora: The Case of Germany

Abstract

Academic diasporas have an impact both on their host countries and their homeland during the process of knowledge creation and human capital stock increase. This study examines the effect of the reverse migration tendencies of academicians in the Turkish Diaspora on their academic productivity. In the study, data obtained from 466 Turkish scientists working in universities and research centers in Germany were analyzed through Probit Regression. According to the results, while the physical migration tendencies of the scientists in Diaspora have no significant effect on their academic productivity, the tendency of intellectual reverse migration affects academic productivity positively. Accordingly, the intellectual reverse migration tendency of scientists in the diaspora increases their academic productivity by 0.12%. In addition, it is concluded that the academic connections of the academic diaspora affect their academic productivity positively

Keywords

• Scientific diaspora
• Human capital
• Productivity
• Reverse brain drain

Kaynakça

1. Abramo, G., D’angelo, C. A., ve Caprasecca, A., (2009), Gender Differences in Research Productivity: A Bibliometric Analysis of The Italian Academic System. Scientometrics, 79(3), 517–539.
2. Abramo, G., D’angelo, C. A., ve Di Costa, F., (2011), Research Productivity: Are Higher Academic Ranks More Productive Than Lower Ones? Scientometrics, 88(3), 915–928.
3. Abramo, G., D’angelo, C. A., ve Murgia, G., (2013), Gender Differences in Research Collaboration. Journal of Informetrics, 7(4), 811–822.
4. Abramo, G., D’angelo, C. A., ve Murgia, G., (2014), Variation in Research Collaboration Patterns Across Academic Ranks. Scientometrics, 98(3), 2275–2294.
5. Abramo, G., D’angelo, C. A., ve Murgia, G., (2016), The Combined Effects of Age And Seniority on Research Performance of Full Professors. Science and Public Policy, 43(3), 301–319.
6. Abramo, G., D’angelo, C. A., ve Murgia, G., (2017), The Relationship Among Research Productivity, Research Collaboration, and Their Determinants. Journal of Informetrics, 11(4), 1016-1030.
7. Ackers, L., (2005), Moving People and Knowledge: Scientific Mobility in the European Union, International Migration, 43(5), 99–131.
8. Agrawal, A., Kapur, D., ve Mchale, J., (2008), How Do Spatial And Social Proximity Influence Knowledge Flows? Evidence From Patent Data. Journal of Urban Economics 64 (2), 258–269, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2008.01.003.

9. Agrawal, A., Mchale, J., ve Oettl, A., (2014), Why Stars Matter. in: NBER WP., 20012.
10. Ahlin, L., ve Ejermo, O., (2015), The Patent Productivity Effects of Mobility for a Panel of Swedish Inventors, 2015. DRUID.
11. Aldrich, J., ve Nelson, F., (1984), Linear Probability, Logit, and Probit Models, California: Sage Publications.
12. Azoulay, P., Ganguli, I., ve Zivin, J. G., (2017), The Mobility of Elite Life Scientists: Professional and Personal Determinants. Research Policy, 46(3), 573-590.
13. Barre, R., Barre, R., Meyer, J. B., Vinck, D., & Hernandez, V. (2003), Scientific Diasporas: How Can Developing Countries Benefit from Their Expatriate Scientists and Engineers?, Paris: Institute De La Recherche Pour Le Developpement.
14. Baruffaldi, S. H., ve Landoni, P. (2012), Return Mobility And Scientific Productivity of Researchers Working Abroad: The Role of Home Country Linkages. Research policy, 41(9), 1655-1665.
15. Becker, G.S., (1964), Human Capital, The University of Chicago Press.
16. Bercovitz, J., ve Feldman, M., (2011), The Mechanisms of Collaboration in Inventive Teams: Composition, Social Networks, and Geography, Research Policy, 40(1), 81–93.
17. Bhagwati, J., ve Hamada, K., (1974), The Brain Drain, International Integration of Markets for Professionals and Unemployment: A Theoretical Analysis, Journal of Development Economics 1(1), 19-42.
18. Bhagwati, J., ve Partington, M., (1976), Taxing the Brain Drain: A Proposal. North-Holland.
19. Borjas, G.J., (1994), The Economics of Immigration. Journal of Economic Literature 32(4), 1667–1717.
20. Bozeman, B., ve Corley, E., (2004), Scientists’ Collaboration Strategies: Implications For Scientific And Technical Human Capital. Research Policy, 33(4), 599–616.
21. Canibano, C., Otamendi, J., ve Andujar, I., (2008), Measuring and Assessing Researcher Mobility From CV Analysis: The Case of The Ramón Y Cajal Programme in Spain. Research Evaluation 17(1), 17-31.
22. Criscuolo, P., (2005), On The Road Again: Researcher Mobility Inside The R&D Network. Research Policy 34 (9), 1350–1365.
23. Ductor, L., (2015), Does Co-Authorship Lead To Higher Academic Productivity? Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 77(3), 385–407.
24. Durmaz, A., (2018), Beşeri Sermaye Kaynağı Olarak Diaspora: Almanya’daki Türkiye Kökenli Bilim İnsanlarının Türkiye ile Olan Bağlarının Tersine Beyin Göçü Üzerine Etkileri, Konya: Çizgi Kitabevi.
25. Durmaz, A., (2020), Diaspora As A Source of Human Capital: The Effects of The Relationship Between Scientific Turkish Diaspora and The Homeland on Reverse Brain Drain. Migration and Development, 1-20.
26. Dustmann, C., ve Weiss, Y., (2007), Return Migration: Theory and Empirical Evidence from The UK. British Journal of Industrial Relations 45 (2), 236–256.
27. El Qorchi, M., (2005), Islamic Finance Gears Up, Finance And Development. International Monetary Fund, 42(4).
28. Erdoğan, M. M. (2015), Avrupa’da Türkiye Kökenli Göçmenler ve ‘Euro-Turks Barometre’ Araştırmaları. Göç Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1 (1): 108-148.
29. Etzkowitz, H., Kemelgor, C., ve Uzzi, B., (2000), Athena Unbound: The Advancement of Women in Science and Technology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
30. Fernández-Zubieta, A., Geuna, A., ve Lawson, C., (2016), Productivity Pay-Offs From Academic Mobility: Should I Stay or Should I Go? Ind. Corp. Change 25 (1), 91–114.
31. Foray, D., (2004), Economics of Knowledge. The MIT Press.
32. Gaillard, J., ve Gaillard, A. M., (1997), Introduction: The International Mobility of Brains: Exodus or Circulation? Science Technology & Society 2 (2), 195–228.
33. Gaulé, P., (2014), Who Comes Back and When? Return Migration Decisions of Academic Scientists. Economics Letters, 124(3), 461-464.
34. Gaulé, P., ve Piacentini, M., (2013), Chinese Graduate Students and US Scientific Productivity. Rev. Econ. Stat. 95 (2), 698–701.
35. Gibson, J., ve Mckenzie, D., (2014), Scientific Mobility and Knowledge Networks in High Emigration Countries: Evidence from Pasific, Research Policy, 43, 1486-1495.
36. Hart, D. M., (2007), Understanding Immigration in A National Systems of Innovation Framework. Science and Public Policy 34 (1), 45–53, http://dx.doi.org/10.3152/030234207X189696.
37. Hoisl, K., (2007), Tracing Mobile Inventors-The Causality Between Inventor Mobility and Inventor Productivity. Res. Policy 36 (5), 619–636.
38. Hunt, J., (2009), Which Immigrants are Most Innovative and Entrepreneurial? Distinctions by Entry Visa. National Bureau of Economic Research Cambridge, MA, USA, Retrieved from: http://www.nber.org/papers/w14920.
39. Hunt, J., (2011), Which Immigrants Are Most Innovative and Entrepreneurial? Distinctions by Entry Visa. J. Labor Econom. 29 (3), 417–457.
40. Hunter, R. S., Oswald, A. J., & Charlton, B. G. (2009), The Elite Brain Drain, The Economic Journal, 119(538), F231-F251.
41. Johnson, J. M., ve Regets, M. C., (1998), International Mobility of Scientists and Engineers to the United States—Brain Drain or Brain Circulation? SRS Issue Brief. National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Studies, http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/stats.htm.
42. Kelchtermans, S., ve Veugelers, R., (2011), The Great Divide in Scientific Productivity: Why The Average Scientist Does Not Exist. Industrial and Corporate Change, 20(1), 295–336.
43. Kerr, W. R., (2008), Ethnic Scientific Communities and International Technology Diffusion. Review of Economics and Statistics 90 (3), 518–537, Retrieved from: http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-39149084479&partner ID=40&md5=45406cede77516f9acd61079e1679014.
44. Kyvik, S., ve Olsen, T., (2008), Does The Aging of Tenured Academic Staff Affect The Research Performance of Universities? Scientometrics, 76(3), 439–455.
45. Kyvik, S., ve Teigen, M., (1996), Child Care, Research Collaboration, and Gender Differences in Scientific Productivity Science. Technology and Human Values, 21(1), 54–71.
46. Landry, R., Traore, N., ve Godin, B., (1996), An Econometric Analysis of The Effect of Collaboration on Academic Research Productivity. Higher Education, 32(3), 283–301.
47. Larivière, V., Vignola-Gagné, E., Villeneuve, C., Gelinas, P., ve Gingras, Y., (2011), Sex Differences in Research Funding, Productivity and Impact: An Analysis of Quebec University Professors. Scientometrics, 87(3), 483–498.
48. Levin, S. G., ve Stephan, P. E., (1991), Research Productivity Over The Life Cycle: Evidence For Academic Scientists. American Economic Review, 81(1), 114–132.
49. Levin, S., ve Stephan, P., (1999), Are The Foreign Born A Source of Strength for US Science?, Science, 285 (5431), 1213–1214.
50. Libaers, D. P., (2007), Role and Contribution of Foreign-Born Scientists and Engineers To The Public U.S. Nanoscience and Technology Research Enterprise. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management 54 (3), 423–432, http://dx.doi.org /10.1109/TEM.2007.900789.
51. Lissoni, F., (2010). Academic Inventors As Brokers. Research Policy 39 (7), 843–857, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.respol. 2010.04.005.
52. Lissoni, F., Mairesse, J., Montobbio, F., ve Pezzoni, M., (2011), Scientific Productivity And Academic Promotion: A Study on French And Italian Physicists. Industrial and Corporate Change, 20(1), 253–294.
53. Lowell, B. L., (2002), Policy Responses to the International Mobility of Skilled Labour. National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER).
54. Lundvall, B., (1992), National Systems of Innovation: Towards a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning. Pinter, London.
55. Marmolejo-Leyva, R., Perez-Angon, M. A., ve Russell, J. M. (2015), Mobility And International Collaboration: Case of The Mexican Scientific Diaspora. PloS one, 10(6), e0126720.
56. Mauleón, E., ve Bordons, M., (2006). Productivity, Impact and Publication Habits by Gender in The Area of Materials Science. Scientometrics, 66(1), 199–218.
57. Mcfadyen, M. A., ve Cannella, A. A., (2004), Social Capital And Knowledge Creation: Diminishing Returns of The Number and Strength of Exchange Relationships. Academy of Management Journal, 47(5), 735–746.
58. Meyer, J.-B., (2001), Network Approach Versus Brain Drain: Lessons From The Diaspora. International Migration 39 (5), 91–110.
59. Meyer, J.-B., (2003), Policy Implications of the Brain Drain’s Changing Face. Policy Brief, Science and Development Network.
60. Miguelez, Ernest (2016), “Inventor Diasporas and The Internationalization Technology”, The World Bank Economic Review, 1-28.
61. Mishra, V., ve Smyth, R., (2013), Are More Senior Academics Really More Research Productive Than Junior Academics? Evidence From Australian Law Schools. Scientometrics, 96(2), 411–425.
62. National Science Foundation, (2007), Asia’s Rising Science And Technology Strength: Comparative Indicators for Asia, The European Union and The United States. National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Statistics. NSF-07-319.
63. Nelson, R. R., (1993), National Innovation Systems: A Comparative Analysis. USA, Oxford University Press. Pezzoni, M., Sterzi, V., ve Lissoni, F., (2012), Career Progress in Centralized Academic Systems: Social Capital and Institutions in France and Italy. Research Policy, 41(4), 704–719.
64. Rigby, J., ve Edler, J., (2005), Peering Inside Research Networks: Some Observations on The Effect of The Intensity of Collaboration on The Variability of Research Quality. Research Policy 34, 784–794, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.respol.2005.02.004.
65. Sala, A., Landoni, P., ve Verganti, R., (2011), R&D Networks: An Evaluation Framework. International Journal of Technology Management 53 (1), 19–43.
66. Saxenian, A., (2005), From Brain Drain To Brain Circulation: Transnational Communities And Regional Upgrading in India and China. Studies in Comparative International Development (SCID) 40 (2), 35–61, Retrieved from: http://dx. doi.org/10.1007/BF02686293.
67. Séguin, B., State, L., Singer, P. A., & Daar, A. S. (2006). Scientific diasporas as an option for brain drain: re-circulating knowledge for development. International Journal of Biotechnology, 8(1-2), 78-90.
68. Siar, Sheila V. (2011), “Skilled Migration, Knowledge Transfer and Development: The Case of the Highly Skilled Filipo Migrants in New Zealand and Australia”, Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 30(3), 61-94.
69. Stock, J., ve Watson, M., (2015), Introduction to Econometrics, (Third Edition Update b.). USA: Pearson.
70. Tani, M., (2008), Short-Term Skilled Labour Movements and Economic Growth. International Migration 46 (3), 161-187.
71. Tejada, G. ve Bolay, J. C. (2010), Scientific Diasporas As Development Partners: Skilled Migrants from Colombia, India and South Africa in Switzerland Empirical Evidence and Policy Responses, Bern: Peter Lang.
72. Tejada, G., (2012), Mobility, Knowledge and Cooperation: Scientific Diasporas As Agents of Development, Migration and Development, 10(18), 59-92.
73. Tejada, G., Varzari, V., & Porcescu, S. (2013). Scientific diasporas, transnationalism and home-country development: Evidence from a study of skilled Moldovans abroad. Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 13(2), 157-173.
74. Thorn, K., ve Holm-Nielsen, L. B., (2008), International Mobility of Researchers and Scientists Policy Options For Turning A Drain into A Gain. The International Mobility of Talent: Types, Causes, and Development Impact, 145–167.
75. Van Bouwel, L. A. C., (2010), International Mobility Patterns of Researchers And Their Determinants. In: DRUID summer conference “Opening Up Innovation: Strategy, Organization and Technology”, London, June, 16–18, http://www2.druid.dk/conferences/viewabstract.php?id=501842&cf=43.
76. Van Rijnsoever, F. J., Hessels, L. K., ve Vandeberg, R. L. J., (2008), A Resource-Based View on The Interactions of University Researchers. Research Policy, 37(8), 1255–1266.
77. Varzari, V., Tejada, G., Porcescu, S., ve Bolay, J. C., (2014), Skilled Migration and Development Practices: Republic of Moldova and The Countries of South East Europe. ASM, Chisinau.
78. Yang, R., ve Qiu, F., (2010), Globalisation and Chinese Knowledge Diaspora: An Australian Case Study, The Australian Educational Researcher, 37(3), 19-37.
79. Ynalvez, M. A., ve Shrum, W. M., (2011), Professional Networks, Scientific Collaboration, And Publication Productivity in Resource-Constrained Research Institutions in A Developing Country. Research Policy, 40(2), 204–216.