GIDA İŞLETMELERİNDE COVID-19 SALGININA YÖNELİK ALINMASI GEREKEN ÖNLEMLER VE ETKİN DEZENFEKSİYON UYGULAMALARI

Abstract

SARS-CoV-2 virüsünün neden olduğu COVID-19 salgını, son zamanlarda tüm dünyayı ele geçirmiş ve binlerce kişinin ölümüne neden olmuştur. COVID-19 gıda kaynaklı bir hastalık olmamasına rağmen, gıdalar COVID-19’un yayılımına aracılık edebilmektedir. Bu nedenle, gıda işletmelerinde iyi hijyen uygulamalarının sağlanması, personel hijyenine dikkat edilmesi, meyve ve sebzelerin işleme ve tüketim öncesinde mutlaka bol su ile yıkanması, ısıl işlem sonrası tüketilecek gıdaların uygun sıcaklıklarda pişirilmesi ve çapraz kontaminasyonun önlenmesi gibi birçok uygulama ile COVID-19’un gıdalara kontaminasyonu önlenebilmekte veya kontamine gıdada bu virüsün inaktivasyonu sağlanabilmektedir. Etanol (>%70), NaClO (%0.1), H2O2 ve kuaterner amonyum bileşikleri, COVID-19’un inhibisyonu amacıyla kullanımı önerilen dezenfektanlardır. Bu çalışmada, gıdalar aracılığıyla COVID-19’un yayılımı, gıdaların COVID-19 açısından güvenli hale getirilmesi, gıda işletmelerinde üretim, taşıma, servis ve satış aşamalarında COVID-19’a karşı alınması gereken önlemler ve bu amaçla işletmelerde kullanılabilecek dezenfektanlar ile ilgili bilgiler derlenmiştir.

Keywords

• COVID-19
• SARS-CoV-2
• gıda güvenliği
• dezenfektan

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN AGAINST COVID-19 PANDEMIC IN FOOD ESTABLISHMENTS

Abstract

COVID-19 outbreak caused by SARS-CoV-2 virus, has recently been taken hold of worldwide and caused thousands of people death. Although COVID-19 is not a food-borne outbreak, foods can mediate the spread of COVID-19. Thus, prevention of contamination of foods with COVID-19 or inactivation of the virus from contaminated foods could be provided by ensuring good hygiene practices in food establishments, being careful in personnel hygiene, washing fruit and vegetables with plenty of water before processing and consumption, cooking foods at proper temperatures and avoid cross-contamination. Ethanol (>70%), NaClO (0.1%), H2O2 and quaternary ammonium compounds are suggested as disinfectants to inhibit COVID-19. In this study, information has been reviewed about the spread of COVID-19 through foods, making foods safe in terms of COVID-19, measures to be taken against COVID-19 in food establishments during production, transportation, service and selling stages and disinfectants that can be used in food premises for this purpose.

Keywords

• COVID-19
• SARS-CoV-2
• food safety
• disinfectant

References

1. Ahn, D.G., Shin, H.J., Kim, M.H., Lee, S., Kim, H.S., Myoung, J., Kim, B.T., Kim, S.J. (2020). Current status of epidemiology, diagnosis, therapeutics, and vaccines for Novel Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID 19). J Microbiol Biotechn, 30(3): 313-324, doi: 10.4014/jmb.2003.03011.
2. Anonymous (2020). Preventing the spread of COVID 19: Guidance for food establishments. https://www.doh.wa.gov/Portals/1/Documents/1600/coronavirus/FoodWorkerEstablishment.pdf (Accessed 1 May 2020).
3. Ayhan, B., Bilici, S. (2015). Toplu beslenme sistemlerinde kullanılan gıda dezenfektanları. Türk Hij Den Biyol Derg, 72(4): 323-336.
4. Baker, N., Williams, A., Tropsha, A., Ekins, S. (2020). Repurposing quaternary ammonium compounds as potential treatments for COVID-19. https://osf.io/ehsn3/ (Accessed 1 May 2020).
5. Becker, B., Henningsen, L., Paulmann, D., Bischoff, B., Todt, D., Steinmann, E., Steinmann, J., Brill, F.H.H., Steinmann, J. (2019). Evaluation of the virucidal efficacy of disinfectant wipes with a test method simulating practical conditions. Antimicrob Resist In, 8(1): 121, doi: 10.1186/s13756-019-0569-4.
6. BfR (2020). Can the new type of coronavirus be transmitted via food and objects? https://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/349/can-the-new-type-of-coronavirus-be-transmitted-via-food-and-objects.pdf (Accessed 1 May 2020).
7. Bosch, A., Gkogka, E., Le Guyader, F.S., Loisy Hamon, F., Lee, A., van Liesho ut, L., Marthi, B., Myrmel, M., Sansom, A., Schultz, A.C., Winkler, A., Zuber, S., Phistern, T. (2018). Foodborne viruses: Detection, risk assessment, and control options in food processing. Int J Food Microbiol, 285: 110-128, doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.06.001.
8. Bosch., A, Pinto, R.M., Guix, S. (2016). Foodborne viruses. Curr Opin Food Sci, 8:110-119.

9. Boyce, J.M. (2018). Alcohols as surface disinfectants in healthcare settings. Infect Cont Hosp Ep, 39(3): 323-328, doi: 10.1017/ice.2017.301.
10. CA, Codex Alimentarius (2009). Food hygiene: Basic texts http://www.fao.org/3/a1552e/a1552e00.pdf (Accessed 1 May 2020).
11. CDC (2020a). Coronavirus disease 2019 basics. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/faq.html (Accessed 1 May 2020).
12. CDC (2020b). Strategies to reduce COVID-19 transmission at the Smithfield Foods Sioux Falls Pork Plant. https://covid.sd.gov/docs/smithfield_recs.pdf (Accessed 1 May 2020).
13. CDC (2020c). Guidance for the selection and use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in healthcare settings. https://www.cdc.gov/hai/pdfs/ppe/ppeslides6-29-04.pdf (Accessed 18 May 2020).
14. CDC (2008). Guideline for disinfection and sterilization in healthcare facilities. Chemical Disinfectants. https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/guidelines/disinfection/disinfection-methods/chemical.html (Accessed 1 May 2020).
15. Chin, A., Chu, J., Perera, M., Hui, K., Yen, H.L., Chan, M., Peiris, M., Poon, L. (2020). Stability of SARS-CoV-2 in different environmental conditions. The Lancet Microbe, 1(1): e10, doi: 10.1016/S2666-5247(20)30003-3.
16. Cortesia, C., Vilchèze, C., Bernut, A., Contreras, W., Gómez, K., De Waard, J., Jacobs, W.R. Takiff, H. (2014). Acetic acid, the active component of vinegar, is an effective tuberculocidal disinfectant. MBio, 5(2): e00013-14, doi: 10.1128/mBio.00013-14.
17. Dellanno, C., Quinn Vega, M.S., Boesenberg, D. (2009). The antiviral action of common household disinfectants and antiseptics against murine hepatitis virus, a potential surrogate for SARS Coronavirus. Am J Infect Control. 37: 649-652, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2009.03.012.
18. Desai, A.N., Aronoff, D.M. (2020). Food safety and COVID-19. https://jamanetwork.com/ (Accessed 1 May 2020).
19. dos Santos Rodrigues, J.B., de Souza, N.T., Scarano, J.O.A., de Sousa, J.M., Lira, M.C., de Figueiredo, R.C.B.Q., Souza, E.L., Magnani, M. (2018). Efficacy of using oregano essential oil and carvacrol to remove young and mature Staphylococcus aureus biofilms on food-contact surfaces of stainless steel. LWT- Food Sci Technol, 93: 293-299, doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2018.03.052.
20. Dvorak, G. (2005). Disinfection 101. Center for Food Security and Public Health. http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Disinfection/Assets/Disinfection101.pdf (Accessed 1 May 2020).
21. Eggers, M., Eickmann, M., Zorn, J. (2015). Rapid and effective virucidal activity of povidone-iodine products against Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and modified vaccinia virus ankara (MVA). Infectious Diseases and Therapy, 4(4): 491-501, doi: 10.1007/s40121-015-0091-9.
22. Ekici, L., Sağdıç, O., Kesmen, Z. (2006). Gıda endüstrisinde alternatif bir dezenfektan: ozon. Gıda Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi, 1: 47-57.
23. Fathizadeh, H., Maroufi, P., Momen-Heravi, M., Dao, S., Köse, S., Ganbarov, K., Pagliano, P., Esposito, S., Kafil, H.S. (2020). Protection and disinfection policies against SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19). Infez Med, 28(2): 185-191.
24. FDA (2020a). Food safety and the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). https://www.fda.gov/food/food-safety-during-emergencies/food-safety-and-coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19 (Accessed 1 May 2020).
25. FDA (2020b). Guidance for food businesses on coronavirus (COVID-19). https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/covid-19-guidance-for-food-businesses/guidance-for-food-businesses-on-coronavirus-covid-19 (Accessed 1 May 2020).
26. FDA (2020c). Enforcement policy for face masks and respirators during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) public health emergency (revised), Guidance for industry and food and drug administration staff. https://www.fda.gov/media/136449/download (Accessed 18 May 2020).
27. Girard, M., Mattison, K., Fliss, I., Jean, J. (2016). Efficacy of oxidizing disinfectants at inactivating murine norovirus on ready-to-eat foods. Int J Food Microbiol, 219: 7-11, doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2015.11.015.
28. Goodyear, N., Brouillette, N., Tenaglia, K., Gore, R., Marshall, J. (2015). The effectiveness of three home products in cleaning and disinfection of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli on home environmental surfaces. J App Microbiol, 119(5): 1245-1252, doi: 10.1111/jam.12935.
29. Greatorex, J.S., Page, R.F., Curran, M.D., Digard, P., Enstone, J.E., Wreghitt, T., Powell, P.P., Sexton, D.W., Vivancos, R., Nguyen-Van-Tam, J.S. (2010). Effectiveness of common household cleaning agents in reducing the viability of human influenza A/H1N1. PLoS One, 5(2): e8987, doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008987.
30. Hegstad, K., Langsrud, S., Lunestad, B.T., Scheie, A.A., Sunde, M., Yazdankhah, S.P. (2010). Does the wide use of quaternary ammonium compounds enhance the selection and spread of antimicrobial resistance and thus threaten our health? Microb Drug Resist, 16: 91-104, doi: 10.1089/mdr.2009.0120.
31. Hemida, M.G., Ba Abduallah, M.M. (2020). The SARS-CoV-2 outbreak from a one health perspective. One Health, 100127 (Basımda), doi: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2020.100127.
32. Hulkower, R.L., Casanova, L.M., Rutala, W.A., Weber, D.J., Sobsey, M.D. (2011). Inactivation of surrogate coronaviruses on hard surfaces by health care germicides. Am J Infect Control, 39(5): 401-407, doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2010.08.011.
33. Iñiguez-Moreno, M., Avila-Novoa, M.G., Iñiguez-Moreno, E., Guerrero-Medina, P.J., Gutiérrez-Lomelí, M. (2017). Antimicrobial activity of disinfectants commonly used in the food industry in Mexico. J Glob Antimicrob Re, 10: 143-147, doi: 10.1016/j.jgar.2017.05.013.
34. Ito, M., Alam, M. S., Suzuki, M., Takahashi, S., Komura, M., Sangsriratakul, N., Shoham, D., Takehara, K. (2018). Virucidal activity of a quaternary ammonium compound associated with calcium hydroxide on avian influenza virus, Newcastle disease virus, and infectious bursal disease virus. J Vet Med Sci, 80(4): 574-577, doi: 10.1292/jvms.18-0006.
35. Jeong, E.K., Bae, J.E., Kim, I.S. (2010). Inactivation of influenza A virus H1N1 by disinfection process. Am J Infect Control, 38(5): 354-360, doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2010.03.003.
36. Kampf, G., Todt, D., Pfaender, S., Steinmann, E. (2020). Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and its inactivation with biocidal agents. J Hosp Infect, 104(3): 246-251, doi: 10.1016/j.jhin.2020.01.022.
37. Keskin, D., Kök, F. (2007). Mikroorganizmaların gıda işletmelerinde kullanılan dezenfektanlara karşı direnci. Arşiv Kaynak Tarama Dergisi, 16(4): 308-317.
38. Kimball, A. (2020). Asymptomatic and presymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections in residents of a long-term care skilled nursing facility-King County, Washington, March 2020. MMWR, 69(13): 377-381.
39. Koopmans, M., Duizer, E. (2004). Foodborne viruses: an emerging problem. Int J Food Microbiol, 90: 23-41, doi: 10.1016/S0168-1605(03)00169-7.
40. Labs, W. (2020). COVID-19: Can it survive the supply chain?. https://www.foodsafetystrategies.com/articles/1251-covid-19-can-it-survive-the-supply-chain (Accessed 1 May 2020).
41. Lake, R., Kingsbury, J., Hewitt, J., Smit, E., King, N. (2020). Potential for foodborne transmission of COVID-19: Literature review update. https://www.unitedfresh.co.nz/ assets/COVID-19/NZFSSRC---Potential-for-Foodborne-Transmission-of-COVID-19---Lit-Review-Update---6-April-2020.pdf (Accessed 1 May 2020).
42. Lee, J., Bong, C., Bae, P.K., Abafog, A.T., Baek, S.H., Shin, Y.B., Moon, S.P., Park, S. (2020). Fast and easy disinfection of coronavirus-contaminated face masks using ozone gas produced by a dielectric barrier discharge plasma generator. MedRxiv, 1-13. doi: 10.1101/2020.04.26.20080317.
43. Lewis, M.R. (2020). Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) scope for aqualution hypochlorous acid solution for effective prevention and control. https://www.aqualution.co.uk/2020/02/05/novel-coronavirus-2019-ncov-aqualution-effective-prevention-and-control/ (Accessed 1 May 2020).
44. Lombardi, M.E., Ladman, B.S., Alphin, R.L., Benson, E.R. (2008). Inactivation of avian influenza virus using common detergents and chemicals. Avian Dis, 52(1): 118-123, doi: 10.1637/8055-070907-Reg.
45. Lu, G., Wang, Q., Gao, G.F. (2015). Bat to human: spike features determining “host jump” of coronaviruses SARS CoV, MERS CoV, and beyond. Trends Microbiol, 23(8): 468-478, doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2015.06.003.
46. Maier, I., Chu, T. (2016). Use of ozone for inactivation of bacteria and viruses in cryostats. J Cytol, 7(3): 1-5.
47. Martin, H., Soumet, C., Fresnel, R., Morin, T., Lamaudière, S., Le Sauvage, A.L., Deleurme, K., Maris, P. (2013). Comparison of the virucidal efficiency of peracetic acid, potassium monopersulfate and sodium hypochlorite on hepatitis A and enteric cytopathogenic bovine orphan virus. J App Microbiol, 115(4): 955-968, doi: 10.4172/2157-7099.1000428.
48. Montazeri, N., Manuel, C., Moorman, E., Khatiwada, J.R., Williams, L.L., Jaykus, L.A. (2017). Virucidal activity of fogged chlorine dioxide-and hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectants against human norovirus and its surrogate, feline calicivirus, on hard-to-reach surfaces. Front Microbiol, 8: 1031, doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01031.
49. Møretrø, T., Schirmer, B.C., Heir, E., Fagerlund, A., Hjemli, P., Langsrud, S. (2017). Tolerance to quaternary ammonium compound disinfectants may enhance growth of Listeria monocytogenes in the food industry. Int J Food Microbiol, 241: 215-224, doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2016.10.025.
50. Morin, T., Martin, H., Soumet, C., Fresnel, R., Lamaudière, S., Le Sauvage, A.L., Deleurme, K., Maris, P. (2015). Comparison of the virucidal efficacy of peracetic acid, potassium monopersulphate and sodium hypochlorite on bacteriophages P001 and MS 2. J App Microbiol, 119(3): 655-665, doi: 10.1111/jam.12870.
51. Murray, B.K., Ohmine, S., Tomer, D.P., Jensen, K.J., Johnson, F.B., Kirsi, J.J., Robison, R.A., O’Neill, K.L. (2008). Virion disruption by ozone-mediated reactive oxygen species. J Virol Methods, 153(1): 74-77, doi: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2008.06.004.
52. Omidbakhsh, N., Sattar, S.A. (2006). Broad-spectrum microbicidal activity, toxicologic assessment, and materials compatibility of a new generation of accelerated hydrogen peroxide-based environmental surface disinfectant. Am J Infect Control, 34(5): 251-257, doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2005.06.002.
53. Pan, X., Chen, D., Xia, Y., Wu, X., Li, T., Ou, X., Zhou, L., Liu, J. (2020). Asymptomatic cases in a family cluster with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Lancet Infect Dis, 20(4), 410-411, doi: 10.1016/ S1473-3099(20)30114-6.
54. Petrosillo, N., Viceconte, G., Ergonul, O., Ippolito, G., Petersen, E. (2020). COVID 19, SARS and MERS: are they closely related?. Clin Microbiol Infect, (Basımda), doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2020.03.026.
55. Poschetto, L.F., Ike, A., Papp, T., Mohn, U., Böhm, R., Marschang, R.E. (2007). Comparison of the sensitivities of noroviruses and feline calicivirus to chemical disinfection under field-like conditions. App Environ Microbiol, 73(17): 5494-5500, doi: 10.1128/AEM.00482-07.
56. Querido, M.M., Aguiar, L., Neves, P., Pereira, C.C., Teixeira, J.P. (2019). Self-disinfecting surfaces and infection control. Colloids Surface B, 178(1): 8-21, doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.02.009.
57. Rabenau, H.F., Cinatl, J., Morgenstern, B., Bauer, G., Preiser, W., Doerr, H.W. (2005b). Stability and inactivation of SARS coronavirus. Med Microbiol İmmun, 194(1-2): 1-6, doi: 10.1007/s00430-004-0219-0.
58. Rabenau, H.F., Kampf, G., Cinatl, J., Doerr, H.W. (2005a). Efficacy of various disinfectants against SARS coronavirus. J Hosp Infect, 61(2): 107-111, doi: 10.1016/j.jhin.2004.12.023.
59. Ríos‐Castillo, A.G., González‐Rivas, F., Rodríguez‐Jerez, J.J. (2017). Bactericidal efficacy of hydrogen peroxide‐based disinfectants against gram‐positive and gram‐negative bacteria on stainless steel surfaces. J Food Sci, 82(10): 2351-2356, doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.13790.
60. Rodríguez-Lázaro, D., Cook, N., Ruggeri, F.M., Sellwood, J., Nasser, A., Nascimento, M. S., D’Agostino, M., Santos, R., Saiz, J.R., Rzeżutka, A., Bosch, A., Gironés, R., Carducci, A., Muscillo, M., Kovač, K., Diez Valcarce, M., Vantarakis, A., von Bonsdorff, C.H., de Roda Husman, A.M., Hernández, M., van der Poel, W.H. (2012). Virus hazards from food, water and other contaminated environments. FEMS Microbiol Rev, 36(4): 786 814, doi: 10.1111/j .1574 6976.2011.00306.x.
61. Russo, J.R. (2016). Efficiency of industrial disinfectants on food-contact surfaces sanitation. Ph.D. Dissertation, Porto University, Porto, Portugal, 86s.
62. Rutala, W.A., Weber, D.J. (2008). Guideline for disinfection and sterilization in healthcare facilities. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/47378 (Accessed 1 May 2020).
63. Rutala, W.A., Barbee, S.L., Aguiar, N.C., Sobsey, M.D., Weber, D.J. (2000). Antimicrobial activity of home disinfectants and natural products against potential human pathogens. Infect Cont Hosp Ep, 21: 33-38, doi: 10.1086/501694.
64. Schmidt, R.H. (2009). Basic elements of equipment cleaning and sanitizing in food processing and handling operations. University of Florida Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences, 1-14.
65. Şener, A., Temiz, A. (2004). Tavuk kesimhane ve işletmelerinde kullanılan ticari dezenfektanlar ve etkinlikleri. Orlab On-Line Mikrobiyolojisi Dergisi, 2(10): 1-28.
66. Shereen, M.A, Khan, S., Kazmi, A., Bashir, N., Siddique, R. (2020). COVID 19 infection: origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses. J Adv Res, 24: 91-98, doi: 10.1016/j.jare.2020.03.005.
67. Sun, J., He, W.T., Wang, L., Lai, A., Ji, X., Zhai, X., Li, G., Suchard, M.A., Tian, J., Zhou, J., Veit, M., Su, S. (2020). COVID 19: epidemiology, evolution, and cross disciplinary perspectives. Trends Mol Med, doi: 10.1016/j.molmed.2020.02.008
68. Tong, Z.D., Tang, A., Li, K.F., Li, P., Wang, H.L., Yi, J.P., Zhang, Y.L., Yan, J.B. (2020). Potential presymptomatic transmission of SARS-CoV-2, Zhejiang province, China, 2020. Emerg Infect Dis, 26(5): 1052-1054, doi: 10.3201/eid2605.200198.
69. Tyan, K., Kang, J., Jin, K., Kyle, A.M. (2018). Evaluation of the antimicrobial efficacy and skin safety of a novel color additive in combination with chlorine disinfectants. Am J Infect Control, 46(11): 1254-1261, doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2018.04.223.
70. van Doremalen, N., Bushmaker, T., Morris, D.H., Holbrook, M.G., Gamble, A., Williamson, B. N., ...Lloyd-Smith, J.O. (2020). Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with SARS-CoV-1. N Engl J Med, 382(16), 1564-1567.doi: 10.1056/NEJMc2004973.
71. Vimont, A., Fliss, I., Jean, J. (2015). Study of the virucidal potential of organic peroxyacids against norovirus on food-contact surfaces. Food Environ Virol, 7(1), 49-57, doi: 10.1007/s12560-014-9174-0.
72. Wang, H., Sikora, P., Rutgersson, C., Lindh, M., Brodin, T., Björlenius, B., Larsson, D.G.J., Norder, H. (2018). Differential removal of human pathogenic viruses from sewage by conventional and ozone treatments. Int J Hyg Envir Heal, 221(3), 479-488, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2018.01.012.
73. Wang, J., Zhang, B., Duan, H., Liang, C., Sun, H., Zhang, J., ... Zhang, L. (2020). Key points of the program for disinfection technology in special places during the Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) outbreak. China CDC Weekly, 2(9), 140-142, doi: 10.46234/ccdcw2020.038.
74. Whitehead, K., McCue, K.A. (2010). Virucidal efficacy of disinfectant actives against feline calicivirus, a surrogate for norovirus, in a short contact time. Am J Infect Control, 38(1): 26-30, doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2009.03.015.
75. WHO (2020a). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19), Situation report-109. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200508covid-19-sitrep-109.pdf?sfvrsn=68f2c632_6 (Accessed 1 May 2020).
76. WHO (2020b). Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), Situation report-51. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200311-sitrep-51-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=1ba62e57_10 (Accessed 1 May 2020).
77. WHO (2020c). COVID-19 and food safety: Guidance for food businesses. https://www.who.int/publications-detail/covid-19-and-food-safety-guidance-for-food-businesses (Accessed 1 May 2020).
78. WHO (2020d). Home care for patients with COVID-19 presenting with mild symptoms and management of their contacts. https://www.who.int/publications-detail/home-care-for-patients-with-suspected-novel-coronavirus-(ncov)-infection-presenting-with-mild-symptoms-and-management-of-contacts (Accessed 1 May 2020).
79. WHO (2020e). Considerations in the investigation of cases and clusters of COVID-19. https://www.who.int/publications-detail/considerations-in-the-investigation-of-cases-and-clusters-of-covid-19 (Accessed 1 May 2020).
80. WHO (2020f). Infection prevention and control SAVE LIVES: Clean your hands. https://www.who.int/infection-prevention/campaigns/clean-hands/WHO_HH-Community-Campaign_finalv3.pdf?ua=1 (Accessed 1 May 2020).
81. WHO (2020g). Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation report-32. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200221-sitrep-32-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=4802d089_2 (Accessed 1 May 2020).
82. WHO, (2020h). Rational use of personal protective equipment for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) (Interim guidance). https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/331215/ WHO-2019-nCov-IPCPPE_use-2020.1-eng.pdf (Accessed 18 May 2020).
83. WHO (2014). Annex G. Use of disinfectants: alcohol and bleach. Infection prevention and control of epidemic-and pandemic-prone acute respiratory infections in health care. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK214356/ (Accessed 1 May 2020).
84. Yari, S., Moshammer, H., Asadi, A. F. (2020). Side effects of using disinfectants to fight COVID-19. Asian Pac J Cancer, 3(1): 9-13, doi: 10.31557/APJEC.2020.3.1.9-13.
85. Yeap, J.W., Kaur, S., Lou, F., DiCaprio, E., Morgan, M., Linton, R., Li, J. (2016). Inactivation kinetics and mechanism of a human norovirus surrogate on stainless steel coupons via chlorine dioxide gas. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1: 116-123, doi: 10.1128/AEM.02489-15.
86. Yepiz-Gomez., M.S., Gerba, C.P., Bright, K.R. (2013). Survival of respiratory viruses on fresh produce. Food Environ Virol, 5(3): 150-156, doi: 10.1007/s12560-013-9114-4.
87. Yu, P., Zhu, J., Zhang, Z., Han, Y. (2020). A familial cluster of infection associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating possible person-to-person transmission during the incubation period. J Infec Dis, 221(11), 1757-1761, doi: 10.1093/jiaa077.