Research Article
BibTex RIS Cite

Güncel Gelişmeler Işığında Türk Hukukunda Yapay Zekâ Varlıkları ve Hukuki Kişilik

Year 2022, Volume: 4 Issue: 2, 485 - 556, 31.12.2022

Abstract

Yapay zekâ varlıkları, sosyal ve ekonomik hayatımızı önemli ölçüde etkilemektedir. Bu varlıklar hâlihazırda çevrimiçi alışveriş, sosyal medya, reklamcılık, havacılık, tarım, bankacılık ve finans, siber güvenlik, müşteri hizmetleri ve otomotiv gibi birçok sektörde kullanılmaktadır. Yapay zekâ varlıklarının sosyal, ekonomik ve çevresel kalkınmaya birçok açıdan devrim niteliğinde değişiklikler getirmesi, mevcut hukuk kurallarının kendilerine nasıl uygulanacağı konusunda beklenildiği gibi hukuki belirsizlikler yaratmaktadır. Bu belirsizlikleri açıklığa kavuşturmak ve yapay zekâ ile ilgili hukuki sorunlara etkili ve gerçekçi hukuki çözümler getirebilmek için öncelikle yapay zekâ varlıklarına hukuki kişilik tanıyıp tanımamamız gerektiği sorusuna cevap aramakla başlamamız gerekmektedir. Bu makale, disiplinler arası, karşılaştırmalı hukuk ve normatif metodolojileri kullanarak bu soruyu yanıtlamaya çalışmaktadır. Bu makale öncelikle Türk hukukunda hukuki kişiliğin kapsamını ve gereklilikleri ile tüzel kişiler için getirilen temel teorileri Türk ve karşılaştırmalı hukuk perspektifinden açıklayarak başlamaktadır. Diğer yandan makalenin disiplinler arası yönü, tüzel kişiliğe ilişkin felsefi tartışmalar ile bilgisayar bilimi ve sinirbilimi alanında yapılan ilgili araştırma ve çalışmalarda ortaya çıkacaktır. Spesifik olarak, bu çalışmada bir varlığın hukuki manada kişi olarak kabul edilmesi için sahip olması gereken özelliklerin (zekâ, özerklik, bilinç ve yönelmişlik) eleştirel bir şekilde analizi yapılmaktadır. Sonrasında Avrupa Birliği (AB) ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri hukuku kapsamındaki son yasal ve bilimsel gelişmeler eleştirel bir şekilde değerlendirilecektir. Ayrıntılı bir eleştirel analizin üstüne oturan bu çalışma, yasa koyucuların yapay zekâ varlıklarına hukuki kişilik tanımamaları gerektiği sonucuna varmaktadır. Varılan bu sonuç, yapay zekânın genel zekâya ulaşmadığı ve bilinç ve yönelmişlik gibi bazı özelliklerden yoksun olduğuna dayanan ve insanın üstün olduğunu söyleyen şovenizme dayanmamaktadır. Tam tersine, bu makale yapay zekâ varlıklarına kişilik verilmesinin kaotik sonuçlar yaratma konusunda önemli bir potansiyele sahip olduğunu çünkü bazı kişilerin sorumluluktan kaçmak için bu varlıkları kötüye kullanabileceğini ve zarar gören tarafın zararını tazmin edememe gibi bir sonuçla karşılaşabileceğini tartışmaktadır. Yapay zekâ varlıkları kendilerini mahkemelerde temsil edemediği gibi neden oldukları zararı tazmin edecek malvarlıkları da bulunmamaktadır. Bu nedenle, bu çalışma yapay zekâ varlıkları için düşünülen teorik hukuki kişiliğin, kişilik verilmemesi ihtimalinden çok daha fazla pratik sorunlara yol açacağını tartışmakta ve bu nedenle de pragmatik bir yaklaşım içinde bulunmaktadır. Vardığımız bu sonuç, yapay zekâ varlıklarının statik nesneler olarak değerlendirilmesi gerektiği anlamına gelmez, çünkü bu varlıkların oldukça önemli seviyede özerkliğe ve zekâya sahip oldukları inkâr edilemez. Yapay zekâ varlıklarının birçok hukuki belirsizlik yaratmasına neden olan benzersiz nitelikleri ise sözleşmeler, haksız fiiller, ürün sorumluluğu ve sebepsiz zenginleşme gibi hâlihazırda kullandığımız hukuki kurumlar içinde ele alınmalıdır.

References

  • BANTEKA Nadia, “Artificially Intelligent Persons”, Houston Law Review, Cilt 58, Sayı 3, 2021, 537-596.
  • BAYERN Shawn, “The Implications of Modern Business-Entity Law for the Regulation of Autonomous Systems”, European Journal of Risk Regulation, Cilt 19, Sayı 2, 2016, 93-112.
  • BERG Jessica, “Of Elephants and Embryos: A Proposed Framework for Legal Personhood”, Hastings Law Journal, Cilt 59, Sayı 2, Ocak 2007, 369-406.
  • BİLGİLİ Fatih/DEMİRKAPI Ertan, Şirketler Hukuku, Dora Yayınları, Bursa, 2012.
  • BOLTER J. David, Turing’s Man Western Culture in the Computer Age, Penguin Books, Londra, 1986.
  • BRYSON Joanna/DIAMANTIS Mihailis/GRANT Thomas D., “Of, for, and by the People: The Legal Lacuna of Synthetic Persons”, Artificial Intelligence and Law, Cilt 25, Eylül 2017, 273-291.
  • CALO Ryan, Robots As Legal Metaphors, Harvard Journal of Law & Technology, Cilt 30, Sayı 1, Sonbahar 2016, 209-237.
  • CALVERLEY David J., “Imagining a Non-Biological Machine as a Legal Person”, Al & Society, Cilt 22, 523–537.
  • CANDEUB Adam, "Consciousness & (and) Culpability", Alabama Law Review, Cilt 54, Sayı 1, 2002, 113-146.
  • ČERKAA Paulius/GRIGIENĖA Jurgita/SIRBIKYTĖB Gintarė, “Is It Possible to Grant Legal Personhood to Artificial Intelligence Software Systems?”, Computer Law & Security Review, Cilt 33, Sayı 5, Ekim 2017, 685-699.
  • CHALMERS David J., The Conscious Mind, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996.
  • CHOPRA Samir/WHİTE Laurence F., A Legal Theory for Autonomous Artificial Agents, University of Michigan Press, Michigan, 2011.
  • ÇEKER Mustafa, Ticaret Hukuku, Karahan Yayınevi, 3. Bası, Adana, 2016.
  • ÇEKİN Mesut Serdar, Yapay Zekâ Teknolojilerinin Hukuki İşlem Teorisine Etkileri, Oniki Levha Yayıncılık, İstanbul, 2021, s. 136-37.
  • ÇELEBİ Özgün, “Kişi ve Eşya Ayrımı Bağlamında Hayvanların Hukuki Statüsü”, İstanbul Hukuk Mecmuası, Cilt 76, Sayı 2, 2018, 559-622.
  • DARLING Kate, “Extending Legal Protection to Social Robots: The Effects of Anthropomorphism, Empathy, and Violent Behavior Towards Robotic Objects”, Robot Law, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, Massachusetts, 2016, s. 213-14.
  • DEHAENE Stanislas/LAU Hakwan/KOUIDER Sid, “What Is Consciousness, and Could Machines Have It?”, Science, Cilt 358, Sayı 6362, Ekim 2017, 486-492.
  • DEMOTT Deborah A., "Disloyal Agents", Alabama Law Review, Cilt 58, Sayı 5, 2007, 1049-1068.
  • DUFF Patrick William, “The Personality of an Idol”, The Cambridge Law Journal, Cilt 3, Sayı 1, Kasım 1927, 42-48.
  • DURAL Mustafa/ÖĞÜZ Tufan, Kişiler Hukuku, Filiz Kitabevi, 21. Bası, İstanbul, 2020.
  • DURAL Mustafa/SARI Suat, Temel Kavramlar ve Medenî Kanunun Başlangıç Hükümleri, Filiz Kitabevi, İstanbul, 2019.
  • DURSTELER Eric R., Venetians in Constantinople: Nations, Idendity, and Coexistence in the Early Modern Mediterranean, The John Hopkins University Press, Maryland, 2006.
  • EREN Fikret, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler, Yetkin Yayıncılık, 25. Bası, Ankara, 2020.
  • European Commission Directorate-General for Justice and Consumers, Liability for artificial intelligence and other emerging digital technologies, Publications Office, 2019.
  • European Commission, Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Adapting Non-Contractual Civil Liability Rules to Artificial Intelligence (AI Liability Directive), Brussels, 2022.
  • European Economic and Social Committee, Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on ‘Artificial intelligence - The consequences of artificial intelligence on the (digital) single market, production, consumption, employment and society’ (own-initiative opinion), 2017.
  • European Parliament, Civil Law Rules on Robotics P8_TA (2017) 0051.
  • European Parliament, Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs Directorate-General for Internal Policies, Artificial Intelligence and Civil Liability: Legal Affairs, Brussels, 2020.
  • FAGUNDES Dave, “What We Talk about When We Talk about Persons: The Language of a Legal Fiction”, Harvard Law Review, Cilt 114, Sayı 6, 2001, 1745- 1768.
  • FLORIDI Luciano/SANDERS J.W., “On the Morality of Artificial Agents”, Minds & Machines, Cilt 14, Ağustos 2004, 349–379.
  • FRENCH Peter A., Collective and Corporate Responsibility, Columbia University Press, New York, 1984.
  • GIERKE Dr Otto, Political Theories of the Middle Age, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1913.
  • GRAY John Chipman, The Nature and Sources of the Law, Columbia University Press, 1. Bası, New York, 1909.
  • HALLEVY Gabriel, Liability for Crimes Involving Artificial Intelligence Systems, Springer, Berlin, 2015.
  • HILDEBRANDT Mireille, “Criminal Liability and ‘Smart’ Environments”, Philosophical Foundations of Criminal Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011.
  • HILDT Elisabeth, “Artificial Intelligence Does Consciousness Matter?”, Frontiers in Psychology, Cilt 10, Temmuz 2019, 1-3.
  • HORWITZ Morton J., “Santa Clara Revisited: The Development of Corporate Theory”, West Virginia Law Review, Cilt 88, Sayı 2, 1985, 173-224.
  • KANE Robert, The Significance of Free Will, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996.
  • KOOPS Bert-Jaap/HILDEBRANDT Mireille/JAQUET-CHIFFELLE David- Olivier, “Bridging the Accountability Gap: Rights for New Entities in the Information Society”, Minnesota Journal of Law Science & Technology, Cilt 11, Sayı 2, 2010, 497-561.
  • KRAMM Matthias, “When a River Becomes a Person”, Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, Cilt 21, Sayı 4, Ağustos 2020, 307-309.
  • KURTULAN GÜNER Gökçe, Trust ve Türk Hukuku Açısından Değerlendirilmesi, On iki Levha, İstanbul, 2022.
  • LASKI Harold J., “The Personality of Associations”, Harvard Law Review, Cilt 29, Sayı 4, Şubat 1916, 404-426.
  • LEGG Shane/HUTTER Marcus, “Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence”, Minds & Machines, Cilt 17, Aralık 2007, 391-444.
  • LEHMAN-WILZIG Sam N., “Frankenstein Unbound: Towards a Legal Definition of Artificial Intelligence”, Futures, Cilt 13, Sayı 6, 1981, 442-457.
  • LOCKE John, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Hackett, Indianapolis, 1996.
  • MANZOTTI Riccardo/CHELLA Antonio, “Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Consciousness and the Intermediate Level Fallacy”, Frontiers in Psychology, Cilt 5, Sayı 39, 2018, 1-10.
  • MAWANI Renisa, Across Oceans of Law, Duke University Press, Durham, 2018.
  • MAYER Carl J., “Personalizing the Impersonal: Corporations and the Bill of Rights”, Hastings Law Journal, Cilt 41, Sayı 3, Mart 1990, 577-668.
  • OĞUZMAN Kemal/SELİÇİ Özer/OKTAY-ÖZDEMİR Saibe, Eşya Hukuku, Filiz Kitabevi, 15. Bası, 2012.
  • OĞUZMAN Kemal/SELİÇİ Özer/OKTAY-ÖZDEMİR Saibe, Kişiler Hukuku, Filiz Kitabevi, 19. Bası, İstanbul, 2020.
  • OĞUZMAN M. Kemal/ÖZ Turgut, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler: Cilt – 1, Vedat Kitapçılık, 18. Bası, İstanbul, 2020.
  • OĞUZMAN M. Kemal/ÖZ Turgut, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler: Cilt – 2, Vedat Kitapçılık, 15. Bası, İstanbul, 2020.
  • ÖZTAN Bilge, Medeni Hukuk Tüzel Kişilerinde Organ Kavramı ve Organın Fiillerinden Sorumluluk, Adalet Yayınevi, Ankara, 1970.
  • PAGALLO Uga, “From Automation to Autonomous Systems: A Legal Phenomenology with Problems of Accountability”, Proceedings of the Twenty- Sixth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Ağustos 2017, 17- 23.
  • POSNER Richard A., “An Economic Theory of the Criminal Law”, Columbia Law Review, Cilt 85, Sayı 6, Ekim 1985, 1193-1231.
  • PULAŞLI Hasan, Yeni Şirketler Hukuku: Genel Esaslar Cilt 1, Adalet Yayınevi, Ankara, 2012.
  • RADIN Max, “The Endless Problem of Corporate Personality”, Columbia Law Review, Cilt 32, Sayı 4, Nisan 1932, 643-667.
  • RUSSELL Stuart/NORVIG Peter, Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, Pearson, 3. Bası, Londra, 2010.
  • SCHANE Sanford A., “Corporation is a Person: The Language of a Legal Fiction”, Tulane Law Review, Cilt 61, Sayı 3, 1986-1987, 563-610.
  • SEARLE John R., “Consciousness, Explanatory Inversion, and Cognitive Science”, Behavioral & Brain Sciences, Cilt 13, Sayı 4, 1990, 585-596, s. 586.
  • SEARLE John R., “Minds, Brains, and Programs”, The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, Cilt 3, Sayı 4, 1980, 417-457, s. 417-418.
  • SEROZAN Rona, “Hukukta Yöntem”, Yaşar Üniversitesi Dergisi Prof. Dr. Aydın Zevkliler’e Armağan, Sayı 8 (Özel Sayı), 2013, 2423-2440.
  • SEROZAN Rona, Kişiler Hukuku, Vedat Kitapçılık, İstanbul, 2011.
  • SLOMAN Aaron, “How to Dispose of the Free Will Issue”, AISB Quarterly, Cilt 81, 1992, 31-32, s.31.
  • SOLUM Lawrence B., “Legal Personhood for Artificial Intelligences”, North Carolina Law Review, Cilt 7, Sayı 4, Nisan 1992, 1231-1287.
  • STRADELLA Elettra/SALVINI Pericle/PIRNI Alberto/DI CARLO Angela/ODDO Calogero Maria/DARIO Paolo/PALMERIN Erica, “Robot Companions as Case-Scenario for Assessing the “Subjectivity” of Autonomous Agents. Some Philosophical and Legal Remarks”, CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Cilt 885, Ocak 2012.
  • TEKİNAY Selahattin/AKMAN Sermet/BURCUOĞLU Haluk/ALTOP Atilla, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler, Filiz Kitabevi, 7. Bası, İstanbul, 1993.
  • TEZİÇ Erdoğan, Anayasa Hukuku, 13. Bası, Beta Basım, Ankara, 2009.
  • WILLICK Marshal S., “Constitutional Law and Artificial Intelligence: The Potential Legal Recognition of Computers as ‘Persons’”, Proceedings of the Ninth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Cilt 2, 1985, 1271-1273.

Künstliche Intelligenz und Rechtssubjektivität – Aktuelle Entwicklungen im türkischen Recht

Year 2022, Volume: 4 Issue: 2, 485 - 556, 31.12.2022

Abstract

Im Informationszeitalter, in dem wir leben, beeinflussen Anlagen der künstlichen Intelligenz unser Leben in sozialer und wirtschaftlicher Hinsicht. Tatsächlich erleben wir diese sozialen und wirtschaftlichen Auswirkungen aus erster Hand in Sektoren wie Online-Shopping, Social Media, Werbung, Luftfahrt, Landwirtschaft, Bank- und Finanzwesen, Cybersicherheit, Kundendienst und Automobil, in denen künstliche Intelligenz eingesetzt wird. Die wichtigsten Merkmale, die diesem Erfolg von Systemen der künstlichen Intelligenz zugrunde liegen, sind ihre Fähigkeit, im Gegensatz zu anderer automatisierter Software korrekt auf die Szenarien zu reagieren, denen sie begegnen. In diesen Aspekten unterscheiden sich Systeme künstlicher Intelligenz von anderen Objekten. Aufgrund dieser Merkmale wurde der rechtliche Status von Systemen der künstlichen Intelligenz diskutiert. Insbesondere wurde diskutiert, ob diese Einheiten als juristische Personen anerkannt werden können. Die Antwort auf diese Frage wird uns auch zeigen, wen wir für Schäden haftbar machen sollten, die von Einheiten der künstlichen Intelligenz verursacht werden. Dieser Artikel versucht eine Antwort auf diese grundlegende Frage zu geben. Um dies zu erreichen, bedient es sich rechtsvergleichender, interdisziplinärer und doktrinärer Methoden.

References

  • BANTEKA Nadia, “Artificially Intelligent Persons”, Houston Law Review, Cilt 58, Sayı 3, 2021, 537-596.
  • BAYERN Shawn, “The Implications of Modern Business-Entity Law for the Regulation of Autonomous Systems”, European Journal of Risk Regulation, Cilt 19, Sayı 2, 2016, 93-112.
  • BERG Jessica, “Of Elephants and Embryos: A Proposed Framework for Legal Personhood”, Hastings Law Journal, Cilt 59, Sayı 2, Ocak 2007, 369-406.
  • BİLGİLİ Fatih/DEMİRKAPI Ertan, Şirketler Hukuku, Dora Yayınları, Bursa, 2012.
  • BOLTER J. David, Turing’s Man Western Culture in the Computer Age, Penguin Books, Londra, 1986.
  • BRYSON Joanna/DIAMANTIS Mihailis/GRANT Thomas D., “Of, for, and by the People: The Legal Lacuna of Synthetic Persons”, Artificial Intelligence and Law, Cilt 25, Eylül 2017, 273-291.
  • CALO Ryan, Robots As Legal Metaphors, Harvard Journal of Law & Technology, Cilt 30, Sayı 1, Sonbahar 2016, 209-237.
  • CALVERLEY David J., “Imagining a Non-Biological Machine as a Legal Person”, Al & Society, Cilt 22, 523–537.
  • CANDEUB Adam, "Consciousness & (and) Culpability", Alabama Law Review, Cilt 54, Sayı 1, 2002, 113-146.
  • ČERKAA Paulius/GRIGIENĖA Jurgita/SIRBIKYTĖB Gintarė, “Is It Possible to Grant Legal Personhood to Artificial Intelligence Software Systems?”, Computer Law & Security Review, Cilt 33, Sayı 5, Ekim 2017, 685-699.
  • CHALMERS David J., The Conscious Mind, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996.
  • CHOPRA Samir/WHİTE Laurence F., A Legal Theory for Autonomous Artificial Agents, University of Michigan Press, Michigan, 2011.
  • ÇEKER Mustafa, Ticaret Hukuku, Karahan Yayınevi, 3. Bası, Adana, 2016.
  • ÇEKİN Mesut Serdar, Yapay Zekâ Teknolojilerinin Hukuki İşlem Teorisine Etkileri, Oniki Levha Yayıncılık, İstanbul, 2021, s. 136-37.
  • ÇELEBİ Özgün, “Kişi ve Eşya Ayrımı Bağlamında Hayvanların Hukuki Statüsü”, İstanbul Hukuk Mecmuası, Cilt 76, Sayı 2, 2018, 559-622.
  • DARLING Kate, “Extending Legal Protection to Social Robots: The Effects of Anthropomorphism, Empathy, and Violent Behavior Towards Robotic Objects”, Robot Law, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, Massachusetts, 2016, s. 213-14.
  • DEHAENE Stanislas/LAU Hakwan/KOUIDER Sid, “What Is Consciousness, and Could Machines Have It?”, Science, Cilt 358, Sayı 6362, Ekim 2017, 486-492.
  • DEMOTT Deborah A., "Disloyal Agents", Alabama Law Review, Cilt 58, Sayı 5, 2007, 1049-1068.
  • DUFF Patrick William, “The Personality of an Idol”, The Cambridge Law Journal, Cilt 3, Sayı 1, Kasım 1927, 42-48.
  • DURAL Mustafa/ÖĞÜZ Tufan, Kişiler Hukuku, Filiz Kitabevi, 21. Bası, İstanbul, 2020.
  • DURAL Mustafa/SARI Suat, Temel Kavramlar ve Medenî Kanunun Başlangıç Hükümleri, Filiz Kitabevi, İstanbul, 2019.
  • DURSTELER Eric R., Venetians in Constantinople: Nations, Idendity, and Coexistence in the Early Modern Mediterranean, The John Hopkins University Press, Maryland, 2006.
  • EREN Fikret, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler, Yetkin Yayıncılık, 25. Bası, Ankara, 2020.
  • European Commission Directorate-General for Justice and Consumers, Liability for artificial intelligence and other emerging digital technologies, Publications Office, 2019.
  • European Commission, Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Adapting Non-Contractual Civil Liability Rules to Artificial Intelligence (AI Liability Directive), Brussels, 2022.
  • European Economic and Social Committee, Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on ‘Artificial intelligence - The consequences of artificial intelligence on the (digital) single market, production, consumption, employment and society’ (own-initiative opinion), 2017.
  • European Parliament, Civil Law Rules on Robotics P8_TA (2017) 0051.
  • European Parliament, Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs Directorate-General for Internal Policies, Artificial Intelligence and Civil Liability: Legal Affairs, Brussels, 2020.
  • FAGUNDES Dave, “What We Talk about When We Talk about Persons: The Language of a Legal Fiction”, Harvard Law Review, Cilt 114, Sayı 6, 2001, 1745- 1768.
  • FLORIDI Luciano/SANDERS J.W., “On the Morality of Artificial Agents”, Minds & Machines, Cilt 14, Ağustos 2004, 349–379.
  • FRENCH Peter A., Collective and Corporate Responsibility, Columbia University Press, New York, 1984.
  • GIERKE Dr Otto, Political Theories of the Middle Age, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1913.
  • GRAY John Chipman, The Nature and Sources of the Law, Columbia University Press, 1. Bası, New York, 1909.
  • HALLEVY Gabriel, Liability for Crimes Involving Artificial Intelligence Systems, Springer, Berlin, 2015.
  • HILDEBRANDT Mireille, “Criminal Liability and ‘Smart’ Environments”, Philosophical Foundations of Criminal Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011.
  • HILDT Elisabeth, “Artificial Intelligence Does Consciousness Matter?”, Frontiers in Psychology, Cilt 10, Temmuz 2019, 1-3.
  • HORWITZ Morton J., “Santa Clara Revisited: The Development of Corporate Theory”, West Virginia Law Review, Cilt 88, Sayı 2, 1985, 173-224.
  • KANE Robert, The Significance of Free Will, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996.
  • KOOPS Bert-Jaap/HILDEBRANDT Mireille/JAQUET-CHIFFELLE David- Olivier, “Bridging the Accountability Gap: Rights for New Entities in the Information Society”, Minnesota Journal of Law Science & Technology, Cilt 11, Sayı 2, 2010, 497-561.
  • KRAMM Matthias, “When a River Becomes a Person”, Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, Cilt 21, Sayı 4, Ağustos 2020, 307-309.
  • KURTULAN GÜNER Gökçe, Trust ve Türk Hukuku Açısından Değerlendirilmesi, On iki Levha, İstanbul, 2022.
  • LASKI Harold J., “The Personality of Associations”, Harvard Law Review, Cilt 29, Sayı 4, Şubat 1916, 404-426.
  • LEGG Shane/HUTTER Marcus, “Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence”, Minds & Machines, Cilt 17, Aralık 2007, 391-444.
  • LEHMAN-WILZIG Sam N., “Frankenstein Unbound: Towards a Legal Definition of Artificial Intelligence”, Futures, Cilt 13, Sayı 6, 1981, 442-457.
  • LOCKE John, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Hackett, Indianapolis, 1996.
  • MANZOTTI Riccardo/CHELLA Antonio, “Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Consciousness and the Intermediate Level Fallacy”, Frontiers in Psychology, Cilt 5, Sayı 39, 2018, 1-10.
  • MAWANI Renisa, Across Oceans of Law, Duke University Press, Durham, 2018.
  • MAYER Carl J., “Personalizing the Impersonal: Corporations and the Bill of Rights”, Hastings Law Journal, Cilt 41, Sayı 3, Mart 1990, 577-668.
  • OĞUZMAN Kemal/SELİÇİ Özer/OKTAY-ÖZDEMİR Saibe, Eşya Hukuku, Filiz Kitabevi, 15. Bası, 2012.
  • OĞUZMAN Kemal/SELİÇİ Özer/OKTAY-ÖZDEMİR Saibe, Kişiler Hukuku, Filiz Kitabevi, 19. Bası, İstanbul, 2020.
  • OĞUZMAN M. Kemal/ÖZ Turgut, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler: Cilt – 1, Vedat Kitapçılık, 18. Bası, İstanbul, 2020.
  • OĞUZMAN M. Kemal/ÖZ Turgut, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler: Cilt – 2, Vedat Kitapçılık, 15. Bası, İstanbul, 2020.
  • ÖZTAN Bilge, Medeni Hukuk Tüzel Kişilerinde Organ Kavramı ve Organın Fiillerinden Sorumluluk, Adalet Yayınevi, Ankara, 1970.
  • PAGALLO Uga, “From Automation to Autonomous Systems: A Legal Phenomenology with Problems of Accountability”, Proceedings of the Twenty- Sixth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Ağustos 2017, 17- 23.
  • POSNER Richard A., “An Economic Theory of the Criminal Law”, Columbia Law Review, Cilt 85, Sayı 6, Ekim 1985, 1193-1231.
  • PULAŞLI Hasan, Yeni Şirketler Hukuku: Genel Esaslar Cilt 1, Adalet Yayınevi, Ankara, 2012.
  • RADIN Max, “The Endless Problem of Corporate Personality”, Columbia Law Review, Cilt 32, Sayı 4, Nisan 1932, 643-667.
  • RUSSELL Stuart/NORVIG Peter, Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, Pearson, 3. Bası, Londra, 2010.
  • SCHANE Sanford A., “Corporation is a Person: The Language of a Legal Fiction”, Tulane Law Review, Cilt 61, Sayı 3, 1986-1987, 563-610.
  • SEARLE John R., “Consciousness, Explanatory Inversion, and Cognitive Science”, Behavioral & Brain Sciences, Cilt 13, Sayı 4, 1990, 585-596, s. 586.
  • SEARLE John R., “Minds, Brains, and Programs”, The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, Cilt 3, Sayı 4, 1980, 417-457, s. 417-418.
  • SEROZAN Rona, “Hukukta Yöntem”, Yaşar Üniversitesi Dergisi Prof. Dr. Aydın Zevkliler’e Armağan, Sayı 8 (Özel Sayı), 2013, 2423-2440.
  • SEROZAN Rona, Kişiler Hukuku, Vedat Kitapçılık, İstanbul, 2011.
  • SLOMAN Aaron, “How to Dispose of the Free Will Issue”, AISB Quarterly, Cilt 81, 1992, 31-32, s.31.
  • SOLUM Lawrence B., “Legal Personhood for Artificial Intelligences”, North Carolina Law Review, Cilt 7, Sayı 4, Nisan 1992, 1231-1287.
  • STRADELLA Elettra/SALVINI Pericle/PIRNI Alberto/DI CARLO Angela/ODDO Calogero Maria/DARIO Paolo/PALMERIN Erica, “Robot Companions as Case-Scenario for Assessing the “Subjectivity” of Autonomous Agents. Some Philosophical and Legal Remarks”, CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Cilt 885, Ocak 2012.
  • TEKİNAY Selahattin/AKMAN Sermet/BURCUOĞLU Haluk/ALTOP Atilla, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler, Filiz Kitabevi, 7. Bası, İstanbul, 1993.
  • TEZİÇ Erdoğan, Anayasa Hukuku, 13. Bası, Beta Basım, Ankara, 2009.
  • WILLICK Marshal S., “Constitutional Law and Artificial Intelligence: The Potential Legal Recognition of Computers as ‘Persons’”, Proceedings of the Ninth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Cilt 2, 1985, 1271-1273.

Artificial Intelligence and Legal Personhood - Current Developments in Turkish Law

Year 2022, Volume: 4 Issue: 2, 485 - 556, 31.12.2022

Abstract

Artificial intelligence (AI) entities significantly impact our social and economic lives. Their current applications include many sectors, such as online shopping, social media, advertising, aviation, agriculture, banking and finance, cybersecurity, customer service, and automotive. AI entities bring such revolutionary changes to many areas of social, economic, and environmental development but this expectedly creates various legal uncertainties regarding how current law applies to them. To clarify these uncertainties and develop efficient and realistic legal solutions to AI-related legal problems, we must first ask whether we should grant legal personality to AI entities. This Article attempts to answer this question by employing interdisciplinary, comparative law, and normative methodologies. It starts with describing the scope and requisites of legal personhood under Turkish law and underlying theories for legal persons from Turkish and comparative law perspectives. The interdisciplinarity aspect of this Article will reflect philosophical discussions around legal personhood and relevant research and studies on computer science and neuroscience. Specifically, this Article critically analyzes the necessary features an entity must have to be accepted as a person: intelligence, autonomy, consciousness, and intentionality. Next, this Article will critically evaluate the recent legislative and scholarly developments under European Union (EU) and the United States law. Building upon such a detailed critical analysis, this Article concludes that legislators should not grant personhood to AI entities. This conclusion is not based on human chauvinism that AI has not reached general intelligence and is deprived of some features such as consciousness and intentionality. Instead, this Article demonstrates that granting personhood to AI entities has a significant potential to create chaotic results because some will likely misuse them to escape responsibility, and the aggrieved party would not be able to compensate his or her losses. Plus, AI entities cannot represent themselves in courts and do not have assets to compensate for damages they caused. Hence, this Article’s stance is based on pragmatical considerations that theoretical legal personhood for AI entities will cause practical problems much more than the case for non-personhood. This conclusion is not to say that AI entities should be treated as other static objects, as it is undeniable that AI entities have acquired more significant autonomy and intelligence. Their unique nature that creates many legal uncertainties should be addressed within readily available legal theories, including contracts, torts, product liability, and unjust enrichment.

References

  • BANTEKA Nadia, “Artificially Intelligent Persons”, Houston Law Review, Cilt 58, Sayı 3, 2021, 537-596.
  • BAYERN Shawn, “The Implications of Modern Business-Entity Law for the Regulation of Autonomous Systems”, European Journal of Risk Regulation, Cilt 19, Sayı 2, 2016, 93-112.
  • BERG Jessica, “Of Elephants and Embryos: A Proposed Framework for Legal Personhood”, Hastings Law Journal, Cilt 59, Sayı 2, Ocak 2007, 369-406.
  • BİLGİLİ Fatih/DEMİRKAPI Ertan, Şirketler Hukuku, Dora Yayınları, Bursa, 2012.
  • BOLTER J. David, Turing’s Man Western Culture in the Computer Age, Penguin Books, Londra, 1986.
  • BRYSON Joanna/DIAMANTIS Mihailis/GRANT Thomas D., “Of, for, and by the People: The Legal Lacuna of Synthetic Persons”, Artificial Intelligence and Law, Cilt 25, Eylül 2017, 273-291.
  • CALO Ryan, Robots As Legal Metaphors, Harvard Journal of Law & Technology, Cilt 30, Sayı 1, Sonbahar 2016, 209-237.
  • CALVERLEY David J., “Imagining a Non-Biological Machine as a Legal Person”, Al & Society, Cilt 22, 523–537.
  • CANDEUB Adam, "Consciousness & (and) Culpability", Alabama Law Review, Cilt 54, Sayı 1, 2002, 113-146.
  • ČERKAA Paulius/GRIGIENĖA Jurgita/SIRBIKYTĖB Gintarė, “Is It Possible to Grant Legal Personhood to Artificial Intelligence Software Systems?”, Computer Law & Security Review, Cilt 33, Sayı 5, Ekim 2017, 685-699.
  • CHALMERS David J., The Conscious Mind, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996.
  • CHOPRA Samir/WHİTE Laurence F., A Legal Theory for Autonomous Artificial Agents, University of Michigan Press, Michigan, 2011.
  • ÇEKER Mustafa, Ticaret Hukuku, Karahan Yayınevi, 3. Bası, Adana, 2016.
  • ÇEKİN Mesut Serdar, Yapay Zekâ Teknolojilerinin Hukuki İşlem Teorisine Etkileri, Oniki Levha Yayıncılık, İstanbul, 2021, s. 136-37.
  • ÇELEBİ Özgün, “Kişi ve Eşya Ayrımı Bağlamında Hayvanların Hukuki Statüsü”, İstanbul Hukuk Mecmuası, Cilt 76, Sayı 2, 2018, 559-622.
  • DARLING Kate, “Extending Legal Protection to Social Robots: The Effects of Anthropomorphism, Empathy, and Violent Behavior Towards Robotic Objects”, Robot Law, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, Massachusetts, 2016, s. 213-14.
  • DEHAENE Stanislas/LAU Hakwan/KOUIDER Sid, “What Is Consciousness, and Could Machines Have It?”, Science, Cilt 358, Sayı 6362, Ekim 2017, 486-492.
  • DEMOTT Deborah A., "Disloyal Agents", Alabama Law Review, Cilt 58, Sayı 5, 2007, 1049-1068.
  • DUFF Patrick William, “The Personality of an Idol”, The Cambridge Law Journal, Cilt 3, Sayı 1, Kasım 1927, 42-48.
  • DURAL Mustafa/ÖĞÜZ Tufan, Kişiler Hukuku, Filiz Kitabevi, 21. Bası, İstanbul, 2020.
  • DURAL Mustafa/SARI Suat, Temel Kavramlar ve Medenî Kanunun Başlangıç Hükümleri, Filiz Kitabevi, İstanbul, 2019.
  • DURSTELER Eric R., Venetians in Constantinople: Nations, Idendity, and Coexistence in the Early Modern Mediterranean, The John Hopkins University Press, Maryland, 2006.
  • EREN Fikret, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler, Yetkin Yayıncılık, 25. Bası, Ankara, 2020.
  • European Commission Directorate-General for Justice and Consumers, Liability for artificial intelligence and other emerging digital technologies, Publications Office, 2019.
  • European Commission, Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Adapting Non-Contractual Civil Liability Rules to Artificial Intelligence (AI Liability Directive), Brussels, 2022.
  • European Economic and Social Committee, Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on ‘Artificial intelligence - The consequences of artificial intelligence on the (digital) single market, production, consumption, employment and society’ (own-initiative opinion), 2017.
  • European Parliament, Civil Law Rules on Robotics P8_TA (2017) 0051.
  • European Parliament, Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs Directorate-General for Internal Policies, Artificial Intelligence and Civil Liability: Legal Affairs, Brussels, 2020.
  • FAGUNDES Dave, “What We Talk about When We Talk about Persons: The Language of a Legal Fiction”, Harvard Law Review, Cilt 114, Sayı 6, 2001, 1745- 1768.
  • FLORIDI Luciano/SANDERS J.W., “On the Morality of Artificial Agents”, Minds & Machines, Cilt 14, Ağustos 2004, 349–379.
  • FRENCH Peter A., Collective and Corporate Responsibility, Columbia University Press, New York, 1984.
  • GIERKE Dr Otto, Political Theories of the Middle Age, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1913.
  • GRAY John Chipman, The Nature and Sources of the Law, Columbia University Press, 1. Bası, New York, 1909.
  • HALLEVY Gabriel, Liability for Crimes Involving Artificial Intelligence Systems, Springer, Berlin, 2015.
  • HILDEBRANDT Mireille, “Criminal Liability and ‘Smart’ Environments”, Philosophical Foundations of Criminal Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011.
  • HILDT Elisabeth, “Artificial Intelligence Does Consciousness Matter?”, Frontiers in Psychology, Cilt 10, Temmuz 2019, 1-3.
  • HORWITZ Morton J., “Santa Clara Revisited: The Development of Corporate Theory”, West Virginia Law Review, Cilt 88, Sayı 2, 1985, 173-224.
  • KANE Robert, The Significance of Free Will, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996.
  • KOOPS Bert-Jaap/HILDEBRANDT Mireille/JAQUET-CHIFFELLE David- Olivier, “Bridging the Accountability Gap: Rights for New Entities in the Information Society”, Minnesota Journal of Law Science & Technology, Cilt 11, Sayı 2, 2010, 497-561.
  • KRAMM Matthias, “When a River Becomes a Person”, Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, Cilt 21, Sayı 4, Ağustos 2020, 307-309.
  • KURTULAN GÜNER Gökçe, Trust ve Türk Hukuku Açısından Değerlendirilmesi, On iki Levha, İstanbul, 2022.
  • LASKI Harold J., “The Personality of Associations”, Harvard Law Review, Cilt 29, Sayı 4, Şubat 1916, 404-426.
  • LEGG Shane/HUTTER Marcus, “Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence”, Minds & Machines, Cilt 17, Aralık 2007, 391-444.
  • LEHMAN-WILZIG Sam N., “Frankenstein Unbound: Towards a Legal Definition of Artificial Intelligence”, Futures, Cilt 13, Sayı 6, 1981, 442-457.
  • LOCKE John, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Hackett, Indianapolis, 1996.
  • MANZOTTI Riccardo/CHELLA Antonio, “Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Consciousness and the Intermediate Level Fallacy”, Frontiers in Psychology, Cilt 5, Sayı 39, 2018, 1-10.
  • MAWANI Renisa, Across Oceans of Law, Duke University Press, Durham, 2018.
  • MAYER Carl J., “Personalizing the Impersonal: Corporations and the Bill of Rights”, Hastings Law Journal, Cilt 41, Sayı 3, Mart 1990, 577-668.
  • OĞUZMAN Kemal/SELİÇİ Özer/OKTAY-ÖZDEMİR Saibe, Eşya Hukuku, Filiz Kitabevi, 15. Bası, 2012.
  • OĞUZMAN Kemal/SELİÇİ Özer/OKTAY-ÖZDEMİR Saibe, Kişiler Hukuku, Filiz Kitabevi, 19. Bası, İstanbul, 2020.
  • OĞUZMAN M. Kemal/ÖZ Turgut, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler: Cilt – 1, Vedat Kitapçılık, 18. Bası, İstanbul, 2020.
  • OĞUZMAN M. Kemal/ÖZ Turgut, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler: Cilt – 2, Vedat Kitapçılık, 15. Bası, İstanbul, 2020.
  • ÖZTAN Bilge, Medeni Hukuk Tüzel Kişilerinde Organ Kavramı ve Organın Fiillerinden Sorumluluk, Adalet Yayınevi, Ankara, 1970.
  • PAGALLO Uga, “From Automation to Autonomous Systems: A Legal Phenomenology with Problems of Accountability”, Proceedings of the Twenty- Sixth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Ağustos 2017, 17- 23.
  • POSNER Richard A., “An Economic Theory of the Criminal Law”, Columbia Law Review, Cilt 85, Sayı 6, Ekim 1985, 1193-1231.
  • PULAŞLI Hasan, Yeni Şirketler Hukuku: Genel Esaslar Cilt 1, Adalet Yayınevi, Ankara, 2012.
  • RADIN Max, “The Endless Problem of Corporate Personality”, Columbia Law Review, Cilt 32, Sayı 4, Nisan 1932, 643-667.
  • RUSSELL Stuart/NORVIG Peter, Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, Pearson, 3. Bası, Londra, 2010.
  • SCHANE Sanford A., “Corporation is a Person: The Language of a Legal Fiction”, Tulane Law Review, Cilt 61, Sayı 3, 1986-1987, 563-610.
  • SEARLE John R., “Consciousness, Explanatory Inversion, and Cognitive Science”, Behavioral & Brain Sciences, Cilt 13, Sayı 4, 1990, 585-596, s. 586.
  • SEARLE John R., “Minds, Brains, and Programs”, The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, Cilt 3, Sayı 4, 1980, 417-457, s. 417-418.
  • SEROZAN Rona, “Hukukta Yöntem”, Yaşar Üniversitesi Dergisi Prof. Dr. Aydın Zevkliler’e Armağan, Sayı 8 (Özel Sayı), 2013, 2423-2440.
  • SEROZAN Rona, Kişiler Hukuku, Vedat Kitapçılık, İstanbul, 2011.
  • SLOMAN Aaron, “How to Dispose of the Free Will Issue”, AISB Quarterly, Cilt 81, 1992, 31-32, s.31.
  • SOLUM Lawrence B., “Legal Personhood for Artificial Intelligences”, North Carolina Law Review, Cilt 7, Sayı 4, Nisan 1992, 1231-1287.
  • STRADELLA Elettra/SALVINI Pericle/PIRNI Alberto/DI CARLO Angela/ODDO Calogero Maria/DARIO Paolo/PALMERIN Erica, “Robot Companions as Case-Scenario for Assessing the “Subjectivity” of Autonomous Agents. Some Philosophical and Legal Remarks”, CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Cilt 885, Ocak 2012.
  • TEKİNAY Selahattin/AKMAN Sermet/BURCUOĞLU Haluk/ALTOP Atilla, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler, Filiz Kitabevi, 7. Bası, İstanbul, 1993.
  • TEZİÇ Erdoğan, Anayasa Hukuku, 13. Bası, Beta Basım, Ankara, 2009.
  • WILLICK Marshal S., “Constitutional Law and Artificial Intelligence: The Potential Legal Recognition of Computers as ‘Persons’”, Proceedings of the Ninth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Cilt 2, 1985, 1271-1273.
There are 69 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Law in Context
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Atilla Kasap This is me 0000-0002-8130-9776

Publication Date December 31, 2022
Published in Issue Year 2022 Volume: 4 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Kasap, A. (2022). Güncel Gelişmeler Işığında Türk Hukukunda Yapay Zekâ Varlıkları ve Hukuki Kişilik. Türk-Alman Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 4(2), 485-556.
AMA Kasap A. Güncel Gelişmeler Işığında Türk Hukukunda Yapay Zekâ Varlıkları ve Hukuki Kişilik. ZtdR. December 2022;4(2):485-556.
Chicago Kasap, Atilla. “Güncel Gelişmeler Işığında Türk Hukukunda Yapay Zekâ Varlıkları Ve Hukuki Kişilik”. Türk-Alman Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 4, no. 2 (December 2022): 485-556.
EndNote Kasap A (December 1, 2022) Güncel Gelişmeler Işığında Türk Hukukunda Yapay Zekâ Varlıkları ve Hukuki Kişilik. Türk-Alman Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 4 2 485–556.
IEEE A. Kasap, “Güncel Gelişmeler Işığında Türk Hukukunda Yapay Zekâ Varlıkları ve Hukuki Kişilik”, ZtdR, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 485–556, 2022.
ISNAD Kasap, Atilla. “Güncel Gelişmeler Işığında Türk Hukukunda Yapay Zekâ Varlıkları Ve Hukuki Kişilik”. Türk-Alman Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 4/2 (December 2022), 485-556.
JAMA Kasap A. Güncel Gelişmeler Işığında Türk Hukukunda Yapay Zekâ Varlıkları ve Hukuki Kişilik. ZtdR. 2022;4:485–556.
MLA Kasap, Atilla. “Güncel Gelişmeler Işığında Türk Hukukunda Yapay Zekâ Varlıkları Ve Hukuki Kişilik”. Türk-Alman Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, vol. 4, no. 2, 2022, pp. 485-56.
Vancouver Kasap A. Güncel Gelişmeler Işığında Türk Hukukunda Yapay Zekâ Varlıkları ve Hukuki Kişilik. ZtdR. 2022;4(2):485-556.