Okuma Sürecinde Dil Temelli Becerilerin Önemi: Dil – Okuma İlişkisine Yönelik Bulgular

Abstract

Okuma, tüm çocukların okul yaşantılarının ilk yıllarında kazanmaları beklenen ve birçok dilsel ve bilişsel becerinin eş zamanlı kullanımını gerektiren çok karmaşık bir görevdir. Her ne kadar formal okul yaşantısının ilk yılları ile birlikte gündeme gelse de aslında temelleri erken çocukluk dönemindeki dil gelişim süreci ile atılmaktadır. Uluslararası alanyazında son dönemlerde gerçekleştirilen okuma araştırmaları, bizlere okumanın iyi bir hazırlık dönemi gerektiren dil temelli bir süreç olduğunu ve öncüllerinin erken çocukluk döneminde sahip olunan temel dil becerilerine dayandığını göstermektedir. Alanyazında okuma süreci ile yakından ilişkili olduğu belirtilen dil temelli beceriler ise genellikle beş farklı başlık altında ele alınmaktadır. Bunlar; (a) sözcük dağarcığı, (b) sesbilgisel farkındalık, (c) morfolojik farkındalık, (d) sözdizimsel bilgi ve beceriler ve (e) sözel dili/dinlediğini anlama becerileridir. Yapısı ve içeriği nedeniyle bu beceriler, okumanın hem çözümleme hem de anlama aşamalarına doğrudan katkı sunan önemli becerilerdir. Bu öneminden hareketle kurgulanan bu çalışmada ise alanda çalışan uygulamacılara ve öğretmenlere dil ve okuma arasındaki genel ilişkilerin fark ettirilmesi ve dil temelli becerilerin okuma sürecindeki yerinin ve öneminin ayrıntılı olarak açıklanması amaçlanmıştır.

The Importance of Language-Based Skills in the Reading Process: Evidence from the Language–Reading Relationship

Abstract

Reading is a complex task that requires all children to gain in the first years of school life and require the simultaneous use of many linguistic and cognitive skills. Although it comes to the agenda with the early years of formal school life, it is actually the foundation of language development in early childhood. In recent years, reading research in the international literature shows us that reading is a language-based process that requires an adequate preparation period and that its predecessors are based on the basic language skills of early childhood. Language-based skills, which are closely related to the reading process, are generally covered under five different headings. These are; (a) phonological awareness, (b) morphology, (c) syntax, (d) vocabulary and (e) oral language/listening comprehension skills that require the synchronous use of these skills. Because of their structure and content, these tasks are important skills that directly contribute to both the word decoding and comprehension stages of reading. Based on this importance, this study aims to distinguish the general relationships between language and reading and to explain in detail the role and importance of language-based skills in the reading process.

Keywords

• Okuma,okuduğunu anlama,dil gelişimi,sesbilgisi

References

1. Acarlar, F., Ege, P., & Turan, F. (2002). Türk çocuklarında üstdil becerilerinin gelişimi ve okuma ile ilişkisi. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 17(50), 63-73.
2. Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
3. Akoğlu, G. ve Turan, F. (2012). Eğitsel müdahale yaklaşımı olarak sesbilgisel farkındalık: Zihinsel engelli çocuklarda okuma becerilerine etkileri. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 42, 11-22.
4. Aksan, D. (2005). Türkçenin zenginlikleri incelikleri. Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi.
5. Akyol, H. ve Temur, T. (2007). “Kelime hazinesinin geliştirilmesi”, Kırkkılıç, A. ve Akyol, H (Ed.), İlköğretimde Türkçe öğretimi, (s.195-232), Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık.
6. Anderson, R. C., Wilson, P. T., & Fielding, L. G. (1988). Growth in reading and how children spend their time outside of school. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 285-303.
7. Anthony, J. L. & Francis, D. (2005). Development of phonological awareness. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 255–258.
8. Aarnoutse, C. & Van Leeuwe, J. (2000). Development of poor and better readers during the elementary school. Educational Research and Evaluation, 6,3, 251-278.Ataman, A. (2004). Gelişim ve öğrenme. (2. bas.). Ankara: Gündüz Eğitim ve Yayıncılık.

9. Baayen, R. H., Dijkstra, T. & Schreuder, R. (1997). Singulars and plurals in Dutch: Evidence for a parallel dual-route model. Journal of Memory and Language, 37, 94-117.
10. Ball, E. W. (1993). Phonological awareness: What's important and to whom? Reading & Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 5, 141-159.
11. Baumann, J. F. ve Kameenui, E. J. (2004). Vocabulary instructin: Research to practice. New York, London. The Guildfor Press.
12. Beck, I., ve McKeown, M. (2007). Increasing young low-income children’s oral vocabulary repertoires through rich and focused instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 107, 251-271.
13. Bick, A. S., Frost, R. & Goelman, G. (2009). Imaging implicit morphological processing: evidence from hebrew. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22, 1955-1969.
14. Bishop, D. V. M. & Adams, C. (1990). A prospective study of the relationship between specific language ımpairment, phonological disorders and reading retardation. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 31,7, 1027-1050.
15. Bishop, D. V. M., Byers Brown, B. & Robson, J. (1990). The relationship between phoneme discrimination, speech production, and language comprehension in cerebral palsied individuals. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 33, 210–219.
16. Briggs, L. C. (2013). The significance of morphological awareness in literacy. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272791246.
17. Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Ronning, R. R. (1999). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
18. Cain, K. (2006). Individual differences in children's memory and reading comprehension: An investigation of semantic and inhibitory deficits. Memory 14(5), 553-69.Caramazza, A., Laudanna, A. & Romani, C. (1988). Lexical access and inflectional morphology. Cognition, 28, 297–332.
19. Carlisle, J. F. (2000). Awareness of the structure and meaning of morphologically complex words: Impact on reading. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 12, 169-190.
20. Carlisle, J. F. (2003). Morphology matters in learning to read: A commentary. Reading psychology: Education Study and Teaching Periodicals, 24, 291-322.
21. Carlisle, J. F. & Stone, C. A. (2003). The effects of morphological structure of children's reading of derived words in English. In: E. Assink & D. Sandra (Eds.). Reading complex words: cross-language studies, ( Pp. 27-49). New York: Plenum Publishers.
22. Carlisle, J. F. & Stone, C. A. (2005). Exploring the role of morphemes in word reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 40, 428-449.
23. Carrow-Woolfolk, E. & Lynch, J., I. (1982). An Integrative Approach to Language Disorders in Children. Grune & Stratton. Florida. USA.
24. Catts, H. W., Fey, M. E., Zhang, X. & Tomblin, J. B. (1999). Language basis of reading and reading disabilities: Evidence from a longitudinal investigation. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 331–361.
25. Catts, H. W., Herrera, S., Nielsen, D. C. & Bridges, M. S. (2015). Early prediction of reading comprehension within the simple view framework. Reading and Writing, 28(9), 1407-1425.
26. Chaney, C. (1989). I pledge a legiance tothe flag: Three studies in word segmentation. Applied Psycholinguistics, 10, 261-281.
27. Cooper, D. H., Roth, F. P., Speece, D. L., & Schatschneider, C. (2002). The contribution of oral language skills to the development of phonological awareness. Applied Psycholinguistics, 23, 399–416.
28. Cossu, G., Shankweiler, D., Liberman, I., Katz, L., & Tola, G. (1988). Awareness of phonological segments and reading ability in Italian children. Applied Psycholinguistics, 9(1), 1-16. doi:10.1017/S0142716400000424.
29. Cunningham, A.E. & Stanovich, K.E. (1997). Early reading acquisition and its relation to reading experience and ability 10 years later. Developmental Psychology, 33(6), 934-945.
30. Deretarla- Gül, E. ve Bal, B. (2006). Anasınıfı öğretmenlerinin okuma yazmaya hazırlık çalışmalarına ilişkin bakış açıları, sınıf içi kullanılan materyal ve etkinlikler ile çocukların okuma yazmaya ilgilerinin incelenmesi. Çocuk Gelişimi ve Eğitimi Dergisi, 1, 2, 33-51.
31. Desmarais, C., Roeber, B. J., Smith, M. E., & Pollak, S. D. (2012). Sentence comprehension in postinstitutionalized school-age children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 55(1), 45-54.
32. Deutsch, A., Frost, R., Pollatsek, A. & Rayner, K. (2000). Early morphological effects in word recognition in Hebrew: Evidence from parafoveal preview benefit. Language and Cognitive Processes, 15, 487-506.
33. Deutsch, A., Frost, R., Pollatsek, A. & Rayner, K. 2005. Morphological parafoveal preview benefit effects in reading: Evidence from Hebrew. Language and Cognitive Processes, 20, 341-371.
34. Dickinson, D. & Tabors, P. (2001). Beginning literacy with language: Young children learning at home and at school. Baltimore: Brookes.
35. Doğan, M. (2011). Çocuklarda çalışma belleği, akademik öğrenme ve öğrenme yetersizlikleri. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 14,27, 48-65.
36. Durgunoğlu, A. Y., & Öney, B. (1999). A cross-linguistic comparison of phonological awareness and word recognition. Reading and Writing, 11, 281–299.
37. Durgunoğlu, A., & Öney, B. (2002). Phonological awareness in literacy acquisition: It’s not only for children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 6 (3), 245-266.
38. Ege, P. (2004). Dil ve konuşma bozuklukları. Yüksek lisans yayınlanmamış ders notları. Ankara Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara.
39. Ege, P. (2005). Sözdizimsel ve biçimbilgisel gelişim. S. Topbaş (ed.). Dil ve kavram gelişimi, Ankara: Kök Yayıncılık.
40. Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Stahl, S. A., & Willows, D. M. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71(3), 393-447.
41. Elbro, C. (1990). Differences in dyslexia. Copenhagen, Denmark: Munksgård.
42. Ergül, C., Karaman, G., Akoğlu , G., Tufan, M., Kesiktaş, D., ve Bahap Kudret, Z. (2014). Okul öncesi öğretmenlerinin “erken okuryazarlık” kavramına ilişkin bilgi düzeyleri ve sınıf uygulamaları. İlköğretim Online, 13(4), 1449-1472.
43. Fletcher, J., Lyon, R., Barnes, M., Stuebing, K., Frances, D., Olson, R., et al. (2002). Classification of learning disabilities: An evidenced-based evaluation. In R. Bradley & L. Danielson ( Eds.), Identification of learning disabilities: Research to practice ( pp. 185–250). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
44. Frost, R. (1998). Toward a strong phonological theory of visual word recognition: True issues and false trials. Psychological Bulletin, 123, 71-99.
45. Frost, R. (2006). Becoming literate in Hebrew: The grain-size hypothesis and Semitic orthographic systems. Developmental Science, 9, 439-440.
46. Frost, R., Katz, L., & Bentin, S. (1987). Strategies for visual word recognition and orthographic depth: A multilingual comparison. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 13, 104-115.
47. Gernsbacher, M. A., Varner, K. R., & Faust, M. E. (1997). Investigating differences in general comprehension skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 430–445.
48. Gough, P. B. & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7, 6-10.
49. Gough, P. B., Hoover, W. A. & Peterson, C. L. (1996). Some observations on a simple view of reading. C. Cornoldi ve J. Oakhill, (Ed.), Reading comprehension difficulties: Processes and intervention pp (1-13). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
50. Gunning, T. G. (2003). Reading skills: Cause & effect. Elizabethtown, PA: Continental Press.
51. Güldenoğlu, B., Kargın, T. ve Ergül, C. (2017). Anasınıfı çocuklarının erken okuryazarlık beceri profili: Ankara örneklemi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 18(1), 61-87.
52. Güldenoğlu, B., Kargın, ,T., & Ergül, C. (2016). Sesbilgisel farkındalık becerilerinin okuma ve okuduğunu anlama üzerindeki etkisi: Boylamsal bir çalışma. Elementary Education Online, 15(1), 251-272.
53. Güldenoğlu, B., Kargin, T., & Miller, P. (2015). Okuma güçlüğü olan ve olmayan öğrencilerin cümle anlama becerilerinin incelenmesi. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 30(76), 82-96.
54. Güldenoğlu, B., Kargin, T. ve Miller, P. (2012). İyi ve zayıf okuyucuların sözcük işlemleme ve okuduğunu anlama becerilerinin karşılaştırılmalı olarak incelenmesi. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri (KUYEB), 12(4), 2807- 2828.
55. Hagtvet, B. E. (1998). Preschool oral language competence and literacy development. In: Reitsma P. & Verhoeven L. (eds), Problems and Interventions in Literacy Development (pp.63-80). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
56. Hagtvet, B. E. (2003). Listening comprehension and reading comprehension in poor decoders: Evidence for the importance of syntactic and semantic skill as well as phonological skills. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 16, 505–539.
57. Hiebert, E. H. ve Kamil, M. L. (2005). Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. Bringing research to practice. New Jersey, London. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publisher.
58. Hoover, W. A. & Gough, P. B. (1990). The simple view of reading. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2, 127-160.
59. Isbell, R., Sobol, J., Lindauer, L., & Lowrance, A. (2004). The effects of storytelling and story reading on the oral language complexity and story comprehension of young children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32 (2), 157–163.
60. Fiorentino, R. & Poeppel, D. (2007). Compound Words and Structure in the Lexicon. Language and Cognitive Processes, 22, 953-1000.
61. Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Lapp, D. (2008). Shared readings: Modeling comprehension, vocabulary, text structures, and text features for older readers. The Reading Teacher, 61(7), 548–556.
62. Frauenfelder, U.H. & Schreuder, R. (1992). Constraining psycholinguistic models of morphological processing and representation: The role of productivity. In: G. Booij & J. Van-Marle (Eds.), Yearbook of Morphology. Kluwer: Academic Publishers, Pp. 165-183.
63. Jackson, N. E., & Coltheart, M. (2001). Routes to reading success and failure: Toward an integrated cognitive psychology of atypical reading. Philadelphia, PA, US: Psychology.
64. Joshi, R. M. (2005). Vocabulary: A critical component of comprehension. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 21, 209-219.
65. Kargın, T., Güldenoğlu, B. & Ergül, C. (2017a). Anasınıfı çocuklarının erken okuryazarlık beceri profili: Ankara örneklemi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 18(1), 61-87.
66. Kargın, T., Güldenoğlu, B. & Ergül, C. (2017b). Dinlediğini anlama becerisinin okuduğunu anlama üzerindeki yordayıcılığının incelenmesi. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 25(6), 2369-2384.
67. Kendeou, P., Lynch, J., van den Broek, P., Espin, C., White, M.J. & Kremer, K. (2005). Developing successful readers: building early comprehension skills through television viewing and listening. Early Childhood Education Journal, 33(2), 91-98. doi: 10.1007/s10643-005-0030-6.
68. Kirby, R. J., Deacon, H., Bowers, P.N. & Wade-Woolley, L. (2012). Children’s morphological awareness and reading ability. Reading and Writing, 25, 389-410. doi: 10.1007/s11145-010-9276-5.
69. Kirby, J. R., Desrochers, A., Roth, L., & Lai, S. S. V. (2008). Longitudinal predictors of word reading development. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 49(2), 103-110
70. Kjeldsen, A., Kärnä, A., Niemi, P., Olofsson A., & Witting, K. (2014). Gains from training in phonological awareness in kindergarten predict reading comprehension in grade 9. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(6), 452-467.
71. Kuder, S. J. (1997). Understanding language and communication. Teaching students with language and communication disabilities. Allyn & Bacon. USA.
72. Kurudayıoğlu, M. (2005). İlköğretim II. kademe öğrencilerinin kelime hazinesi üzerine bir araştırma (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi), Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Türkçe Eğitimi Ana Bilim Dalı, Ankara.
73. Laçin, E. (2016). İşitme engelli öğrencilerin biçimbilim farkındalık becerilerinin işiten akranları ile karşılaştırmalı olarak incelenmesi (Yayınlanmış yüksek lisans tezi). Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi: Ankara.
74. LaSasso, C., & Davey, B. (1987). The relationship between lexical knowledge and reading comprehension for prelingually, profoundly hearing-impaired students. The Volta Review, 89(4), 211-220.
75. Lavric, A., Clapp, A., Rastle, K. (2007). ERP evidence of morphological analysis from orthography: A masked priming study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 866–877.
76. Lee, J. H., ve Macaro, E. (2013). Investigating age in the use of 11 or english-only instruction: Vocabulary acquisition by korean EFL learners. The Modern Language Journal, 97(4), 887-901.
77. Lonigan C. J., Schatschneider C., & Westberg L. (2008). Developing early literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy Panel. In identification of children’s skills and abilities linked to later outcomes in reading, writing, and spelling (pp. 55-106). Washington, DC: National Institue for Literacy.
78. Longtin, C. M. & Meunier, F. 2005. Morphological decomposition in early visual word processing. Journal of Memory and Language, 53, 26-41.
79. Luckner, J. L. ve Cooke C. (2010). A summary of the vocabulary research with students who are deaf or hard of hearing. Am Ann Deaf, 155(1), 38-67.
80. Lundberg, I., Frost, J. & Peterson, O. (1988). Effects of an extensive program for stimulating phonological awareness in preschool children. Reading Research Quarterly, 23: 263-284.
81. Magee, P. A., & Newcomer, P. L. (1978). The relationship between oral language skills and academic achievement of learning disabled children. Learning Disability Quarterly, 1(1), 63-67.
82. Mahony, D., Singson, M., & Mann, V. (2000). Reading ability and sensitivity to morphological relations. Reading and Writing, 12(3), 191-218
83. Mann, V. A. (1986). Phonological awareness: The role of reading experience. Cognition, 24, 65-92.
84. Mann, V. A., Shankweiler, D. & Smith, S.T. (1984). The association between comprehension of spoken sentences and early reading ability: The role of phonetic representation. Journal of Child Language, 11, 627–643.
85. Mann, V. & Singson, M. (2003). Linking morphological knowledge to English decoding ability: Large effects of little suffixes. In Reading complex words: Cross- -language studies (E. M. H. Assink & D. Sandra, editors), pp. 1–25. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press.
86. Marulis, L. M., ve Neuman, S.B (2010). The effects of vocabulary intervention on young children’s word learning: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 80(3), 300–335.
87. McCormick, S.F., Rastle, K. & Davis, M.H. (2008). Is there a ‘fete’ in ‘fetish’? Effects of orthographic opacity on morpho-orthographic segmentation in visual word recognition. Journal of Memory and Language, 58, 307–32.
88. McKeown, M.G., & Beck, I.L. (2006). Encouraging young children’s language interactions with stories. In D.K. Dickinson & S.B. Neuman (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (Vol. 2, pp. 281–294). New York: Guilford.
89. Mc Shane, S. (2005). Applying Research in Reading Instruction for Adults, First Steps for Teachers. USA, National Institute for Literacy, National Center for Family Literacy
90. Meunier, F. & Longtin, C.M. 2007. Morphological decomposition and semantic integration in word processing. Journal of Memory and Language, 56, 457-471.
91. Meyer, M. S., & Felton, R. H. (1999). Repeated reading to enhance fluency: Old approaches and new direction. Annals of Dyslexia, 49, 283-306.
92. Miller, P. (2000). Syntactic and semantic processing in deaf and hearing readers. American Annals of the Deaf, 145, 436-448.
93. Miller, P. (2005). Reading comprehension and its relation to the quality of functional hearing: Evidence from readers with different functional hearing abilities. American Annals of the Deaf, 150, 305-323.
94. Miller, P. (2006). What the visual word recognition skills of prelingually deafened readers tell about their reading comprehension problems. Journal of Development and Physical Disabilities 18, 91-121.
95. Miller, P. (2010). Phonological, orthographic, and syntactic awareness and their relation to reading comprehension in prelingually deaf individuals: What can we learn from skilled readers? Journal of Development and Physical Disabilities, 22, 549-580.
96. Miller, P., Kargin, T. ve Guldenoglu, B. (2013). The reading comprehension failure of Turkish prelingually deaf read¬ers: Evidence from semantic and syntactic processing. Journal of Development and Physical Disabilities, 23, 221-239. doi: 10.1007/s10882-012-9299-8.
97. Morris, K. (1994). Lexical and message-level sentence context effects on fixation times in reading. Journal of Experi¬mental Psycho. 20(1), 92-103.
98. Nagy, E. W. (2005a). Promoting Students’ Vocabulary Development; An Overview Seattle Pacific University. (27.06.2008) http://myhome.spu.edu./wnagy/ promotingstudents.htm.
99. Nagy, W. E. (2005b). Why vocabulary instruction needs to be long-term and comprehensive. E. H. Hiebert & M. L. Kamil (Eds.), Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to practice (pp. 27-44). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
100. Nagy, W. E., Berninger, V. W. & Abbott, R. C. (2006). Contribution of morphology beyond phonology to literacy outcomes of upper elementary and middle-school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 134-147.
101. Nation, K. (2005). Children’s reading comprehension difficulties. M. J. Snowling ve C. Hulme, (Ed.), The science of reading: A handbook (248-266). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
102. National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: Reports of the subgroups. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health.
103. National Early Literacy Panel. (2008). Developing early literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy Panel. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy.
104. Nguyen, T., T. H., & Khuat, T., T., N. (2003). Learning vocabulary through games: The effectiveness of learning vocabulary through games. The Assian EFL Journal,5 (4).
105. Niswander-Klement, E. & Pollatsek, A. (2006). The effects of root frequency, word frequency, and length on the processing of prefixed English words during reading. Memory & Cognition, 34, 685-702.
106. O’Grady, W., Archibald, J., Aronoff, M. & Rees-Miller, J. (2010). Contemporary linguistics: An introduction. Boston, Massachusetts: Bedford/St. Martin’s.
107. Olofsson, A., & Niedersoe, J. (1999). Early language development and kindergarten phonological awareness as predictors of reading problems. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 464–472.
108. Ott, P.(1997). How to detect and manage dyslexia - a reference and resource manual. London: Heinemann Educational Pub.
109. Ouellette, G. P. (2006). What’s meaning got to do with it: The role of vocabulary in word reading and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 554–566.
110. Owens, R. (1984). Preschool language development. Language development, an introduction. Charles E. Merrill. Columbus, Ohio. USA.
111. Owens, R. (1998). Development of Communication, Language and Speech. Human Communication Disorders an Introduction. Ally&Bacon. Boston. USA.
112. Öney, B., & Durgunoğlu, A.Y. (1997). Beginning to read in Turkish: a phonologically transparent orthography. Applied Psycholinguistics, 18, 1-15.
113. Özcan, H. (2013). Çocukta dil ve kavram gelişimi. S. Topbaş (Ed.), Biçimbirim ve sözdizimi gelişimi(s. 114-124). Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi.
114. Parrila, R., Kirby, J. R. & McQuarrie, L. (2009) Articulation rate, naming speed, verbal short-term memory, and phonological awareness: longitudinal predictors of early reading development, Scientific Studies of Reading, 8:1, 3-26.
115. Paul, R. (1995). Language disorder from infancy through adolescence: Assesment and intervention. St Louis: Mosby Pub.
116. Paul V. P. (2001). Language and Deafness. (3 rd ed.). Canada: Thomson Learning Inc.
117. Perfetti, C., Beck, I., Bell, L., & Hughes, C. (1987). Phonemic knowledge and learning to read are reciprocal: A longitudinal study of first grade children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 283–319.
118. Peynircioğlu, Z. F., Durgunoğlu, A., & Öney, B. (2002). Phonological awareness and musical aptitude. Journal of Research in Reading, 25, 68-80.
119. Pike, M., Swank, P., Heather, T., Landry, S & Barnes, M.A. (2013). Effect of preschool working memory, language, and narrative abilities on inferential comprehension at school-age in children with Spina Bifida Myleomeningocele and typically developing children. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 19, 390-399.
120. Pittas, E., & Nunes, T. (2014). The relation between morphological awareness and reading and spelling in Greek: A longitudinal study. Reading and Writing, 27, 1507–1527. doi:10.1007/s11145-014- 9503-6.
121. Phillips, B. M. (2014). Promotion of syntactical development and oral comprehension: Development and initial evaluation of a small-group intervention. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 30(1), 63-77.
122. Qian, D. D. (2002). Investigating the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and academic reading performance: An assessment perspective. Language Learning, 52, 3, 513-536.
123. Rakhlin, N., Cardoso-Martins, C., & Grigorenko, E. (2014). Phonemic awareness is a more important predictor of orthographic processing than rapid serial naming: Evidence from Russian. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(6), 395-414.
124. Raman, İ. (2006). On the age-of-acquisition effects in word naming and orthographic transparency: Mapping specific or universal?. Visiual Cognition, 13 (7), 1044-1053.
125. Raman, İ., Baluch, B., & Besner, D. (2004). On the control of visual word recognition: Changing routes versus changing deadlines. Memory & Cognition, 32 (3), 489-500.
126. Ramus, F., Pidgeon, E., & Frith, U. (2003). The relationship between motor control and phonology in dyslexic children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 712–722.
127. Rastle, K. & Davis, M. (2008). Morphological decomposition based on the analysis of orthography. Language and Cognitive Processes, 23, 942-971.
128. Rispens, J., McBride-Chang, C., & Reitsma, P. (2007). Morphological awareness and early and advanced word recognition and spelling in Dutch. Reading and Writing, 21, 587–607.
129. Roth, F. P., Spence, D. L., & Cooper, D. H. (2002). A longitudinal analysis of the connection between oral language and reading. Journal of Educational Research 95, 259-272.
130. Scarborough, H. S. (1990). Very early language deficits in dyslexic children. Child Development, 61, 1728–1743.
131. Scarborough, H.S. & Brady, S.A. (2002). Toward a common terminology for talking about speech and reading: A glossary of the “phon” words and some related terms. Journal of Literacy Research, 34, 299-334.
132. Schiff, R., Schwartz, S., & Nagar, R. (2011). Effect of phonological and morphological awareness on reading comprehension in Hebrew-speaking adolescents with reading disabilities. Annual of Dyslexia, 61, 44–63.
133. Schreuder, R. & Baayen, R. H. (1995). Modeling morphological processing. In L. B. Feldman (Ed.), Morphological aspects of language processing, (Pp. 131–154). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
134. Seme, E. M., & Wlig, E. H. (1975). Comprehension of syntactic structures and critical verbal elements by children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 8(1), 46-52.
135. Senechal, M., Ouellette, G., & Rodney, D. (2006). The misunderstood giant: On the predictive role of early vocabulary to future reading. In D.K. Dickinson & S.B. Neuman (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (Vol. 2, pp. 173–182). New York: Guilford.
136. Sever, S. (2000). Türkçe öğretimi ve tam öğrenme, Anı Yayıncılık, Ankara.
137. Share, D. L. (1995). Phonological recoding and self-teaching: Sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition, 55, 151-218.
138. Share, D., Jorm, A., MacLean, R. & Mathews, R. (1984). Sources of individual differences in reading acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology 76, 1309–1324.
139. Shaywitz, S.,& Shaywitz, B. (2005). Dyslexia (Specific reading disability). Society of Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1301–1309.
140. Shimron, Y. (2006). Reading Hebrew: The Language and the Psychology of Reading it, Mahwah, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum.
141. Shiotsu, T. & Cyril, W. (2007). The relative significance of syntactic knowledge and vocabulary breadth in the prediction of reading comprehension test performance. Language Testing, 24,1, 99-128.
142. Sinatra, G. M. (1990). Convergence of listening and reading processing. Reading Research Quarterly, 35, 115–130.
143. Sinatra, R. (2008). Creating a culture of vocabulary acquisition for children living in poverty, Journal of Children and Poverty, 14(2), 173-192.
144. Snow, C. E., Tabors, P. O., Nicholson, P. E., & Kurland, B. F. (1995). SHELL: Oral language and early literacy in kindergarten and first-grade children. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 10, 37–47.
145. Solomyak, O., Marantz, A. 2010. Evidence for Early Morphological Decomposition in Visual Word Recognition. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22, 2042-2057.
146. Stahl, S.A. & Murray, B.A. (1994). Defining phonological awareness and its relationship to early reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85: 22–34.
147. Stahl, S. A. & Murray, B. (1998). Word recognition in beginning literacy Metsala, J. L., & Ehri, L. C. (Eds.). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
148. Stahl, S. A. ve Nagy W. E. (2006). Teaching Word Meanings. New Jersey, Literacy Teaching Series, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Inc.
149. Stanovich, K, E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21: 360-407.
150. Stanovich, K. E. (2000). Progress in understanding reading: Scientific foundations and new frontiers. New York: Guilford.
151. Stanovich, K.E., Cunningham, A.E. & Cramer, B.B. (1984). Assessing phonological awareness in kindergarten children: Issues of task comparability, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 38: 175–190.
152. Storch, S. A., & Whitehurst, G. J. (2002). Oral Language and Code-Related Precursors to Reading: Evidence from a Longitudinal Structural Model. Developmental Psychology, 38, 934-947. Doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.38.6.934
153. Sulzby, E., & Teale, W. (1991). Emergent literacy. In R. Barr, M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research, Vol. II (pp. 727–757). New York: Longman.
154. Tabors, P.O., Snow, C.E., & Dickinson, D.K. (2001). Homes and schools together: Supporting language and literacy development. In D.K. Dickinson & P.O. Tabors, Beginning literacy with language: Young children learning at home and school (pp. 313-334). Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.
155. Taft, M. (2004). Morphological decomposition and the reverse base frequency effect. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 57, 745–765.
156. Taft, M. & Ardasinski, S. (2006). Obligatory decomposition in reading prefixed words. The Mental Lexicon, 1, 183-199.
157. Tily, H., Fedorenko, E. & Gibson, E. (2010). The time-course of lexical and structuralprocesses in sentence comprehension. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63(5), 910–927.
158. Topbaş, S. (2017). Dil ve kavram gelişimi. Ankara: Kök Yayıncılık.
159. Topbaş, S. (2005). Dilin bileşenleri. S. Topbaş (ed.). Dil ve kavram gelişimi. Ankara: Kök Yayıncılık.
160. Troia, G. (2004). Phonological processing and its influence on literacy learning. In C. Stone, E. Silliman, B. Ehren, & K. Appel (Eds.), Handbook of language and literacy: Development and disorders (pp. 271–301). New York: Guilford.
161. Tunmer, W. E., Bowey, J. A., & Grieve, R. (1983). The development of young children’s awareness of the word as a unit of spoken language. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 12(6), 567-594.
162. Tunmer, W. E., Nesdale, A.R. & Wright, A.D. (1987). Syntactic awareness and reading acquisition. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5, 25–34.
163. Tunmer, W. E. (2008). Recent developments in reading intervention research: Introduction to special issue. Reading and Writing, 21, 299-316. doi: 10.1007/s11145-007- 9108-4.
164. Tunmer, W. & Greaney, K. (2010). Defining dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(3), 229-243. doi: 10.1177/0022219409345009.
165. Uzuner, Y. (1997). Filizlenen okur-yazarlık. Okul Öncesi Dönemde Özel Eğitim Semineri, 16-17 Ekim, Ankara.
166. Vadasy, P. F., & Nelson, J. R. (2012). What works for special-needs learners: Vocabulary instruction for struggling students. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
167. Vaknin, V. & Shimron, J. (2011). Hebrew plural inflection: Linear processing in a Semitic language. The Mental Lexicon, 6, 197-244.
168. Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J., & Scanlon, D. M. (2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades?. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 2–40.
169. Vellutino, F. R., & Scanlon, D. M. (1987). Phonological coding, phonological awareness and reading ability: Evidence from a longitudinal and experimental study. Merrill- Palmer Quarterly, 33, 321–363.
170. Viana de Freitas, P., Peruzzi Elia da Mota, M. M. & Deacon, H. (2017). Morphological awareness, Word reading, and reading comprehension in Portuguese. Applied Psycholinguistics, 39(3), 507-529.
171. Wagner, R. K., & Torgesen, J. K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 192-212.
172. Whitehurst, G. J., & Lonigan, C. J. (1998). Child development and emergent literacy. Child Development, 69(3), 848-872.
173. Wise, J., Sevcik, R., Morris, R., Lovett, M. & Wolf, M. (2007). The relationship among receptive and expressive vocabulary, listening comprehension, pre-reading skills, word ıdentification skills, and reading comprehension by children with reading disabilities. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50, 1093–1109.
174. Wright, J. & Jacobs, B. (2003). Teaching phonological awareness and metacognitive strategies to children with reading difficulties: A comparison of two instructional methods, Educational Psychology,23(1), 17-47, doi: 10.1080/01443410303217
175. Yopp, H. K. (1988). The validity and reliability of phonemic awareness tests. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 159–177.
176. Yopp, H. K., & Yopp, R. H. (2000). Supporting phonemic awareness development in the classroom. The Reading Teacher, 54-130